Nutrition Tips and Guide

Anise and Human Health

2011-05-31T21:35:00.000-07:00

(Pimpinella anisum) An HERB belonging to the PARSLEY family that originated in India and was cultivated in ancient China and Egypt. The fruit, aniseed, is dried and used as a seasoning. The distinctive, licorice-like flavor of anise extract adds to the taste of shortbread cakes, such as pizella (Italy) and pains á l’anis (France). Anise is used in certain candies. Crushed aniseed together with cinnamon and coriander is used to make a liqueur, anisette. Chopped anise leaves have been used in pickled vegetables and soups.

What is anion?

2011-05-31T21:33:00.000-07:00

A negatively charged ion. Anions are the opposite of CATIONS, which carry positive charges. Important anions are formed when weak acids ionize. Anions, together with their cation counterparts, occur in blood and are called electrolytes. They are required to maintain the appropriate effective concentration of ions and PROTEINS in the
blood. Key anions in blood are chloride (Cl–), phosphate (H2PO4–), and bicarbonate (HCO3
–).
Chloride (Cl–) is the predominant anion in body fluids. Neither chloride nor phosphate can be made by the body; they are essential nutrients to be supplied by the diet. Phosphate and bicarbonate ions help buffer blood at nearly a constant pH. These anions are examples of “conjugate bases,” formed when weak acids ionize.

What is angiotensin?

2011-05-31T21:27:00.000-07:00

A protein-like hormone formed in the blood that raises blood pressure. Angiotensin contracts the muscles of CAPILLARIES and ARTERIES (vasopressor), which increases resistance for blood flow. Angiotensin is liberated by the action of RENIN, an ENZYME formed by the kidneys, on a serum PROTEIN (angiotensinogen) produced by the liver. The release of renin by the kidneys is triggered when they experience lowered blood flow, for example, due to dehydration. Angiotensin also plays an important role in the regulation of blood pressure by stimulating the ADRENAL GLANDS to secrete ALDOSTERONE. Aldosterone, in turn, promotes SODIUM retention and water retention by the kidneys, to help regulate water balance.

What is pernicious anemia?

2011-04-30T20:44:00.000-07:00

A form of ANEMIA caused either by a dietary deficiency of VITAMIN B12 or by inadequate B12 absorption. It is characterized by quite large red blood cells (macrocytic) that are overloaded in the hemoglobin (hyperchromic). Low vitamin B12 consumption is a concern for strict VEGETARIANS who avoid meat and meat products. Pernicious anemia is also caused by inadequate vitamin B12 uptake. Normally, the gastric lining secretes a PROTEIN called INTRINSIC FACTOR that’s needed to specifically bind vitamin B12. Because this protein is required for vitamin B12 absorption by the intestine, inadequate intrinsic factor production, even with adequate dietary B12, can cause pernicious anemia.
Pernicious anemia affects the nervous system as well as the blood. Symptoms include memory loss, weakness, personality and mood swings, and numbness and tingling in the hands and feet. If this anemia continues unchecked, nerve damage may be irreversible. Pernicious anemia is most common in males between the ages of 40 and 65 years who have a family history of the condition. Treatment for intrinsic factor defect involves vitamin B12 injections. Oral doses of vitamin B12 can remedy dietary deficiencies when intrinsic factor production is normal.

What is aplastic anemia ?

2011-04-30T20:42:00.000-07:00

A form of ANEMIA in which the numbers of RED BLOOD CELLS as well as white cells are reduced. This type of anemia is caused by exposure to chemicals (such as solvents), toxic heavy metals, some drugs like chloramphenicol, or ionizing radiation (like X rays). Radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and lead poisoning can damage bone marrow, thus reducing red blood cell production. Both the blood platelet count and immunity decline, with a concomitant increased susceptibility to infection. Destruction of the bone marrow is potentially life-threatening.

Why Do You Have Anemia?

2011-04-30T20:40:00.000-07:00

A condition characterized by subnormal levels of HEMOGLOBIN, the oxygen-binding PROTEIN in blood. Half a million Americans are at risk for anemia, including 40 percent of pregnant women, pre-menopausal women, vegans (those who eat no animal products), adolescents relying on JUNK FOOD diets, infants, and children with inadequate diets.
Anemia may result from either an inadequate number of RED BLOOD CELLS (erythrocytes) or an abnormally low hemoglobin content of red blood cells. With deficient functional red blood cells, the oxygen supply to tissues is inadequate for optimal RESPIRATION, causing shortness of breath, FATIGUE, weakness, pallor, headache, and lowered resistance to infection. There are two general types of anemia based on red blood cell size. Megaloblastic anemia is characterized by large red blood cells; their shortened life span results in a decreased number of cells. Microcytic anemia is characterized by small red blood cells with reduced hemoglobin content. Many nutritional deficiencies lead to anemia. Inadequate dietary IRON, COPPER, FOLIC ACID, PROTEIN,
VITAMIN B6, vitamin B12, VITAMIN C, VITAMIN A, VITAMIN E, and RIBOFLAVIN can cause this condition. Each of these nutrients is required for the production of red blood cells (ERYTHROPOIESIS). Iron deficiency anemia is the most common diet-related anemia in the United States and it represents the last stage of iron deficiency. It is characterized by small, pale red blood cells (microcytic anemia), due to chronic blood loss or inadequate iron intake. Symptoms include FATIGUE, pallor, and shortness of breath. Studies of the nutritional status of developed nations have routinely found up to 30 percent of a population with iron deficiency. Groups that are at highest risk are children under the age of two years, teenage women, pregnant women, and the elderly. Pregnancy drastically increases the requirement of iron. In terms of blood loss the most common causes of iron deficiency are excessive bleeding during menstruation and intestinal bleeding due to parasites, ulcers, or malignancy. Iron deficiency can be caused by impaired iron uptake by the intestine, due to a lack of stomach acid (ACHLORHYDRIA) or from chronic DIARRHEA. With iron deficiency, the resulting anemia can be treated by iron supplementation.
Deficiencies of either folacin or vitamin B12 can cause anemia because each is essential for DNA synthesis and deficiencies impair erythrocyte production. Folic acid deficiency is much more common because folic acid stores in the body are small, yet folic acid participates in many biosynthetic reactions. On the other hand, vitamin B12 is stored in the LIVER, and only trace amounts are required daily for a few specific functions. Anemia due to inadequate folic acid and vitamin B12 produces large (macrocytic) cells with a short life span. This form of anemia can occur when intake of fresh vegetables is very limited, or when the need for folic acid outstrips intake, as may occur during pregnancy or in ALCOHOLISM. Treatment with folic acid can ameliorate megaloblastic anemia, yet mask an underlying vitamin B12 deficiency. This point emphasizes that treatment of anemia requires expert medical supervision.
Anemia can also indicate a serious condition unrelated to diet. Non-nutritional causes of anemia include chronic blood loss and congenital defects in red blood cell formation, such as thalassemia or sickle cell anemia, due to mutant hemoglobins, and spherocytosis (spherical red blood cells). Hemolytic anemia is the result of excessive hemolysis (destruction of red blood cells) in susceptible people exposed to bacterial toxins, toxic chemicals, or drugs that may produce JAUNDICE.
Anemia also may result from reduced nutrient uptake due to the presence of parasites and chronic infections, gastrointestinal disease or bowel resection

Foods and anaphylaxis

2011-03-31T10:40:00.000-07:00

An extreme reaction of the immune system in response to exposure to foreign substances. Insect bites, drugs, injected serum, and certain foods can create anaphylaxis. This abnormal response or immediate hypersensitivity is usually very rapid in susceptible individuals who may have been sensitized by previous exposure, and may produce shock (“anaphylactic shock”). The massive release of histamines and other inflammatory agents leads to spasming of smooth muscles, especially those of the air passageways, and to widespread swelling due to the increased water leaking out of capillaries. Symptoms range from asthma to fever, itching, hives, and flushed skin in mild cases, to chest constriction, irregular pulse, painful, labored breathing, and convulsions in severe cases. Anaphylaxis can be life-threatening and may require emergency room care.

What is anaerobic

2011-03-31T10:38:00.000-07:00

Cellular processes that do not require oxygen. Energy can be produced in cells without oxygen. Anaerobic GLYCOLYSIS refers to an energy yielding process by which ATP, the energy currency of the cell, is produced from GLUCOSE without the participation of oxygen. As an example, skeletal muscle produces LACTIC ACID and ATP from glucose when oxygen supplied to muscle is inadequate to meet energy needs during strenuous physical exertion.
Accumulated lactic acid is then converted back to glucose during the recovery period following EXERCISE when the oxygen supply is again adequate.
Anaerobic processes are important for certain bacteria as well. Anaerobic bacteria in the intestine grow without oxygen and block the growth of potential disease-producing microorganisms. Anaerobic fermentation of SUGAR by yeast yields alcohol-containing products such as WINE and BEER.

What is anabolism (biosynthesis)?

2011-03-31T10:36:00.000-07:00

Processes involved in synthesizing the molecules needed for cellular growth and maintenance. Thus the formation of PROTEIN, DNA, RNA, LIPID, CARBOHYDRATE, FAT, and GLYCOGEN are anabolic processes. Anabolism consumes chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH (a reducing agent), which are supplied by CATABOLISM, the energy-yielding oxidative processes involved in degradation. Optimal function and health rely upon a balance of anabolic and catabolic processes (homeostasis). These two branches of metabolism are controlled by the ENDOCRINE SYSTEM, which in turn responds to external influences such as diet. Anabolic processes require small building blocks supplied by breaking down STARCH, PROTEIN, and FAT in foods to build larger molecules. GLYCEROL and FATTY ACIDS are the subunits of fat; AMINO ACIDS yield proteins; and glucose yields glycogen. Fat and carbohydrate degradation provides an energized form of ACETIC ACID (acetyl CoA) to synthesize fatty acids and cholesterol. Other specialized products are also assembled from several different types of smaller precursors. For example, heme, the iron-containing pigment of the oxygen transport protein HEMOGLOBIN, is synthesized from an amino acid (GLYCINE) and SUCCINIC ACID, a common intermediate in energy-producing pathways.
Growth and an anabolic state, seen as an increase in body mass and muscle mass, occur during childhood, adolescence, pregnancy, and strenuous physical activity, such as body building. The weight gained in these situations represents increased protein, bone, or fat, not fluids. Increased fat stores and accumulated body fat represent stored surplus energy in adults and can result from too little exercise, the over-consumption of FOOD, heredity, or a combination of the above factors.

Anabolic Steroids

2011-02-28T18:22:00.000-08:00

A family of steroids related to the male sex hormone TESTOSTERONE. These are classified as prescription drugs used to make up for hormone imbalance and deficiencies. However, synthetic analogs of testosterone have been obtained illegally by athletes and by teenage males to build muscles, and the U.S. FDA has described steroid abuse as a drug epidemic. While testosterone stimulates growth during adolescence, the synthetic derivatives can cause many side effects. Athletes compound this unsafe practice by “stacking” anabolic steroids—taking a combination of brands at 10 to 100 times the recommended doses for weeks at a time.
In men, the side effects of anabolic steroid use include lowered sperm count, enlarged prostate gland, shrinking testicles, balding, and enlarged breasts. If taken before puberty, anabolic steroids can stunt growth. These effects seem to be reversible if anabolic steroids have been used for a short time. Some women body builders also use steroids to build muscle. Side effects in women do not seem to be reversible: masculinization, including increased muscles, increased size of clitoris, growth of facial hair, a deepening voice, shrinkage of breast size, uterine atrophy, and menstrual irregularities. Severe cases of acne and bouts of rage are signs of anabolic steroid use, especially in males. Anabolic steroid use can have more subtle, longterm detrimental effects; damage may show up years later as a HEART ATTACK, high blood pressure, CANCER, and LIVER damage in both men and women.

Amylose

2011-02-28T18:19:00.000-08:00

A water-soluble form of STARCH found in seeds, tubers, and root vegetables. It is made up of long chains of GLUCOSE units, and often contains a thousand or more glucose units. Amylose differs from the other prevalent form of starch, AMYLOPECTIN, which is highly branched. Amylose forms large spiral configurations when dissolved in water and can react with iodide to form a characteristic blue-purple pigment. Amylopectin and amylose occur together in starch, and the relative amounts vary depending on the plant sources. During digestion, AMYLASE breaks down amylose to maltose, a disaccharide composed of two glucose units. An intestinal enzyme, MALTASE, then hydrolyzes maltose to the simple sugar glucose, the ultimate product of starch digestion.

Amylopectin

2011-02-28T18:08:00.000-08:00

The water-insoluble form of STARCH. Plants synthesize this very long chain of GLUCOSE units as a storage form of energy, often to nurture the future embryo, seedling or sprout. It is often the major form of starch and it possesses a highly branched, bushy structure resembling liver GLYCOGEN (animal starch). In contrast, AMYLOSE is made up of single straight chains of glucose units.
Amylopectin forms a paste in hot water. Starch occurs in seeds, tubers, and root vegetables as both amylopectin and amylose, although the ratio of two forms varies with the source. Cooking softens starch granules, making them available to DIGESTION by AMYLASE. The ultimate product of amylopectin digestion is GLUCOSE. Commercial processing converts starch to glucose, then to HIGHFRUCTOSE CORN SYRUP, a major sweetener

Ammonia (NH3) and Human Health

2011-01-31T18:02:00.000-08:00

The nitrogen waste produced primarily from AMINO ACID metabolism. Ammonia is highly toxic to the nervous system and the brain. It may interfere with metabolic processes required for energy production in the brain. Normally the brain transforms ammonia into GLUTAMINE, a safe, neutral amino acid released into the bloodstream. Next, glutamine is absorbed by the intestine, which releases the ammonia for disposal by the LIVER. Normally the liver very efficiently metabolizes ammonia to UREA, the ultimate nontoxic waste product, via the UREA CYCLE to keep the level of ammonia in the blood at very low levels. Urea is excreted safely in urine. Ammonia is also produced in the intestinal tract by bacteria. Ammonia is absorbed by the intestine and transported directly via the portal vein to the liver for disposal. Liver disease, such as CIRRHOSIS, reduces urea production and leads to elevated blood levels of ammonia (ammonemia), which causes neurological abnormalities. Genetic defects in the ammoniadisposal mechanism of the urea cycle generally lead to brain damage.

What is amino sugars

2011-01-31T17:47:00.001-08:00

A family of nitrogen-containing sugars. Cells attach NITROGEN to the simple sugars GLUCOSE and GALACTOSE to produce GLUCOSAMINE and galactosamine, respectively. These and similar amino sugars are used to produce carbohydratecontaining proteins (GLYCOPROTEINS) that coat cell surfaces, and for structural materials (MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDES) that help form the matrix of cartilage for ligaments and joints.

Understanding Amino Acids

2011-01-31T17:47:00.000-08:00

Small organic acids that serve as raw materials of PROTEINS. The 50,000 to 100,000 different proteins in the body are combinations of just 20 different types of amino acids. During protein synthesis, amino acids are linked together like beads on a string to form long chains (polypeptides). Each type of protein possesses a unique amino acid sequence, specified by the cell’s genes.
As the name implies, each amino acid possesses an amino group and a carboxylic acid functional group, and therefore amino acids behave as both ACIDS and BASES. They also possess side chains with different properties. For example, certain amino acids, like ASPARTIC ACID and GLUTAMIC ACID, are acidic; others like ARGININE and LYSINE are basic;
METHIONINE and CYSTEINE contain SULFUR. Another group repels water and has the branched chains:
VALINE, LEUCINE, and ISOLEUCINE. Just as hands and feet are mirror images of each other, amino acids occur as mirror-image forms (optical isomers). The left-hand forms are desigamino nated as “L,” and the right-handed opposites are designated as “D.” Only L-amino acids are supplied by food and synthesized in the body, and only the “L” forms occur in proteins. Therefore, unless indicated otherwise, an amino acid can be assumed to be the “L-” form when mentioned in nutrition literature. The only common amino acid that does not exist as optical isomers is glycine, the simplest of amino acids.
DIGESTION of food proteins releases amino acids, which are absorbed in the INTESTINE. Depending on the person’s body size and the type of protein that is consumed, 55 g to 65 g of protein a day supplies adequate amino acids for an adult. Few Americans are likely to be protein-deficient, because the typical U.S. diet generally supplies twice as much protein as needed. With a varied diet, neither a meat eater nor a knowledgeable VEGETARIAN needs extra protein to obtain adequate amino acids.
MEAT, FISH, POULTRY, and DAIRY products like EGGS are the best sources of essential amino acids. Proteins that provide ample amounts of essential amino acids are said to be COMPLETE PROTEINS. Several plant proteins approach the quality of animal protein: soy, AMARANTH and QUINOA are examples. However, most plant proteins are deficient in at least one essential amino acid. For example, LEGUMES are low in methionine; CORN is low in lysine. These foods can be balanced during the day by eating “complementary” protein foods that provide ample amounts of those amino acids deficient in another food. Surplus dietary amino acids may be used for energy, and amino acids from the breakdown of cellular protein can be important fuel sources when food intake is inadequate. After 12 to 24 hours without food, MUSCLE protein breaks down rapidly, releasing amino acids into the bloodstream and processing them in the LIVER. The liver removes NITROGEN and converts it to UREA, while converting the amino acids to GLUCOSE and releasing it into the bloodstream to maintain blood sugar levels. In this way, most amino acids can contribute to blood glucose; consequently, muscle protein can help fuel the brain during STARVATION when the glucose supply becomes critical.
Ten amino acids are designated as dietary “nonessential” amino acids because they are synthesized by the body and do not need to be supplied in food. On the other hand, the diet must provide the other eight amino acids to prevent malnutrition. These dietary “essential” amino acids are lysine, valine, PHENYLALANINE, TRYPTOPHAN, isoleucine, leucine, METHIONINE, and THREONINE. Two other amino acids may be conditionally essential. HISTIDINE may not be formed in adequate amounts by infants and growing children, and arginine may be inadequately synthesized by adults with liver disease and by BREAST-FEEDING mothers.
Amino acids like phenylalanine and arginine, thought to stimulate GROWTH HORMONE release and thus promote FAT loss, are neither safe nor effective methods for weight control. Large amounts (several grams per day) of single amino acids used as supplements or additives, can drastically affect the body and damage the KIDNEYS. The therapeutic use of amino acids is still in experimental stages. The U.S. FDA removed amino acids from the GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS SAFE list of FOOD ADDITIVES, and it is prudent to consult a health care provider before supplementing with individual amino acids.

Understanding amino acid metabolism

2010-12-31T21:43:00.000-08:00

Chemical processes by which amino acids are either synthesized or are broken down and are used for energy in the body.
Amino acid synthesis is important because approximately half of the different amino acids used as PROTEIN building blocks can be made from CARBOHYDRATES.
Amino acids such as ALANINE, GLUTAMIC ACID, and GLUTAMINE made by the brain and MUSCLE help transport NITROGEN waste products via the bloodstream to the LIVER for disposal. When amino acids are degraded, the first step (transamination) releases nitrogen with the help of VITAMIN B6. The final nitrogen-containing waste product is UREA. The second step of amino acid degradation requires the oxidation of the carbon atoms of amino acids to produce ATP, the energy currency of cells. The waste product is CARBON DIOXIDE. An alternative route permits the liver to convert most amino acids to blood sugar (GLUCOSE) when the diet does not provide adequate carbohydrates that can be digested to glucose to fuel the brain. This process is called GLUCONEOGENESIS. HEME (the pigment of red blood cells), neurotransmitters (brain chemicals that carry nerve impulses), purines (building blocks of RNA and DNA), and HORMONES represent important amino acid derivatives.

What is Amine?

2010-12-31T21:41:00.000-08:00

A very large family of basic organic compounds that contain nitrogen. Amines become positively charged ions (cations) in the blood.
Physiologically important amines include the hormones EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, and neurotransmitters such as ACETYLCHOLINE and SEROTONIN, chemicals released by activated nerve cells. CHOLINE serves as a raw material for both acetylcholine and LECITHIN, a common LIPID of cell membranes. All AMINO ACIDS used to build PROTEINS have properties of amines. Tyramine found in fermented foods is an amine that can cause headache and food sensitivities. A variety of amines in food can react with the food additive nitrite to produce cancer-causing substances (nitrosoamines).

Nutritional Value of Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus; grain amaranth)

2010-12-31T21:39:00.000-08:00

A nutritious alternative to WHEAT. The tiny spherical seeds are the size of poppy seeds. Originally grown in Mexico as a staple food of the Aztecs, it was eaten in rituals of Native Americans until the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when its cultivation was outlawed.
Amaranth is now cultivated in the United States, and its excellent nutritional qualities account for its present popularity. Amaranth possesses a higher PROTEIN content than most CEREAL GRAINS; the nutritional value of amaranth protein approaches that of MILK. Its protein contains a high percentage of the essential AMINO ACID lysine, which is low in other grain proteins like wheat. Amaranth does not contain typical wheat ALLERGENS, nor does it contain GLUTEN; therefore, people allergic to wheat can often eat amaranth because it belongs to an unrelated plant family. Amaranth is available in health food stores as a whole grain, a FLOUR, and as CRACKERS and breakfast cereals. Amaranth flour has a nutty flavor and can be used to supplement wheat flour. Popped amaranth seed is mixed with honey to make a Mexican confection known as alegria. Amaranth species have also been cultivated in Asia as a source of greens (een choi in China, hiyu in Japan, and CHAULAI in India). One hundred grams of amaranth provides protein, 15 g; carbohydrate, 66 g; fiber, 4.5 g; fat, 5.7 g; and fat, 4.5 g.

Toxicity of Amanita

2010-11-30T17:06:00.000-08:00

A genus of MUSHROOM that includes many poisonous species, along with a few edible ones. Amanita species can be confused with edible mushrooms. The most common cause of mushroom poisoning is the ingestion of A. phalloides (death cap) and A. virosa (destroying angel). These species produce specific toxins called amatoxins and phallotoxins, compounds with cyclic AMINO ACID structures. A single mushroom may contain enough of these poisons to kill an adult. Eating the mushroom can cause LIVER, HEART, and KIDNEY damage, as well as symptoms of common shock and delirium.

Alzheimer’s disease and Nutrition

2010-11-30T17:03:00.000-08:00

A progressive, degenerative disease of the brain and the leading cause of SENILITY in the United States. About 4 million Americans have Alzheimer’s disease, roughly 10 percent of the U.S. population over the age of 65 and nearly half of the population over 85. The disease can also strike younger adults (a small percentage of people in their 30s and 40s have Alzheimer’s). On average, a person lives between eight and 20 years after the onset of symptoms, which include short-term memory loss, difficulty performing simple tasks, and disorientation to time and place. Alzheimer’s disease results from the death of nerve cells in the forebrain and the hippocampus responsible for memory and learning. Patients also have a deficiency of ACETYLCHOLINE, a NEUROTRANSMITTER made by neurons that helps carry nerve impulses between cells. Currently, diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease is very difficult, yet a comprehensive diagnosis is critical in treating the senile patient. Symptoms occurring before the age of 65 are designated early-onset Alzheimer’s; after 65, it is called late-onset Alzheimer’s.
Despite intensive research over the last decade, it is not known whether Alzheimer’s disease is a function of AGING, or whether it is the result of a specific disease process. Alzheimer’s seems to be a multifaceted disease, with environmental and genetic factors contributing. There is an association with Down’s syndrome and thyroid disease. Smoking a pack of cigarettes a day increases the odds of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Diet also plays a part. A healthy diet with low fat intake may reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease; studies also suggest that a high-fat diet during early and mid-adulthood may be associated with an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s, especially in people with a genetic marker called apoE-4. In a retrospective study that examined food eaten by 304 men and women (72 with Alzheimer’s disease and 232 healthy individuals), researchers found that people with the apoE-4 gene who also ate the most fat were seven times more likely to develop Alzheimer’s than were people with the marker who ate lower-fat diets. In a separate 2000 study of Americans between the ages of 40 and 50, those who carried the apoE-4 gene and whose diet consisted of 40 percent fat calories had 29 times the risk for Alzheimer’s compared to non-apoE-4 carriers on the same high-fat diet.
Some population studies have reported an association between low-fat diets and a lower incidence in Alzheimer’s. For example, in China and Nigeria, where fat intake is low, the risk of developing Alzheimer’s is 1 percent at age 65 compared to 5 percent in the United States. In the Netherlands researchers reported an association between dementia and diets high in total fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol.
Scientists have identified four genes that increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s. APOE-4 is implicated in late-onset cases. This gene can be passed down from one or both parents. Patients who have one copy of the gene have a three times greater risk of developing the disease than do patients who do not. Patients who inherit two copies have an eight times greater risk of developing Alzheimer’s. The other three genes—presenilin 1, presenilin 2, and amyloid precursor protein—are associated with early-onset cases. Nearly everyone who carries one or more of these genes will develop early-onset Alzheimer’s.
Another hypothesis for Alzheimer’s links
chronic CALCIUM deficiency to increased uptake of ALUMINUM and silicon by the brain. Aluminum concentrates in the brains of patients with the disease; whether this is a cause or an effect is unknown. In postmenopausal women, estrogen (hormone) replacement therapy may help prevent Alzheimer’s. The importance of estrogen in brain health is gradually being recognized. Alternatively, there may be alterations in nerve cell membranes. Other evidence links immune system activation with the disease process.
Research points to the following possible causes of senility: exposure to toxins, oxidative damage due to FREE RADICALS, abnormal protein metabolism, slow viruses, the narrowing by cholesterol deposits of arteries feeding the brain, ZINC and VITAMIN B12 deficiencies, head trauma, and adverse drug reactions that decrease blood and oxygen supply to the brain.
Clinical trials of an experimental vaccine for the disease, called AN-1792, were halted abruptly in early 2002 when several participants developed brain inflammation after taking it. The drug was a form of beta-amyloid, a protein fragment found in the amyloid plaques that grow over the brain tissue of Alzheimer’s patients. Researchers had hoped exposure to the protein would trigger participants’ IMMUNE SYSTEMs to produce antibodies to the amyloid plaques.
Experiments in mice have shown that FOLIC ACID—a vitamin found in high amounts in dark green, leafy VEGETABLES, CITRUS FRUITS and JUICES, whole wheat BREAD, and dry BEANS—may help ward off Alzheimer’s disease. Since 1998 the U.S.
FDA has required the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, CEREALS, FLOURS, CORNMEAL, PASTA, RICE, and other GRAIN products.
There is limited evidence that antioxidants may help fight or prevent some of the brain cell damage in Alzheimer’s disease that may be attributed to free radicals, thus slowing the progression of the disease. In particular, some evidence suggests that vitamin C or vitamin E supplements can slow the course of Alzheimer’s over several years. In a National Institute on Aging study, the antioxidant vitamin E delayed by six months the progression of some symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. In another National Institute on Aging study, people in the middle to late stages of Alzheimer’s who took vitamin E at levels 70 times higher than the recommended daily dose noticed some beneficial effects. At a dose of 2,000 IU daily, vitamin E was able to slow the expected rate of decline compared to patients who did not take the vitamin. Other studies suggest that taking antioxidants (vitamins C and E) might significantly lower the risk of developing Alzheimer’s. In one preliminary Massachusetts study, none of the 50 subjects who used either vitamin C or E developed Alzheimer’s at follow-up studies. In a Dutch study of 5,000 people, a diet high in antioxidants reduced the risk of developing Alzheimer’s.
Other antioxidants, such as GINKGO biloba and PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE, melatonin, flavonoids (chemicals found in many plants, including fruits and vegetables), and carotenoids (pigments found in plants such as carrots) also may help ease symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Small studies of ginkgo did find slight improvement among patients with Alzheimer’s who took the herb. Although German physicians have approval to use ginkgo to treat Alzheimer’s, and it has been used for thousands of years in Chinese medicine, North American physicians disagree as to its benefits as a memory treatment.
According to several studies, eating plenty of dark-colored fruits and vegetables may slow brain aging. Extracts of blueberries and strawberries reversed age-related decline in lab animal brain function. Blueberries may be the best anti-Alzheimer’s antioxidant of all. When Tufts University researchers analyzed more than 40 fruits and vegetables, they found that raw blueberries contained the highest level of antioxidants (nearly 60 times the recommended daily levels)—more than blackberries, beets, spinach, and garlic. Animals fed an antioxidant-rich blueberry extract diet showed fewer age-related motor changes and outperformed their study counterparts on memory tests. Some studies on wine have reported a lower risk, but they have not been consistent. It might be that wine may increase even more risk of developing Alzheimer’s for people who carry the apoE-4 gene that has been linked to Alzheimer’s—while protecting people who do not carry the gene. However, supplements containing high doses of antioxidants can cause adverse effects. In addition, high doses of vitamin E are potentially harmful if combined with blood-thinning drugs. No one should take these or any supplements without consulting a doctor.
It is safer to consume antioxidants as part of a healthy diet; antioxidants are found in most dark colored fruits and vegetables, whole grains, legumes, nuts, and wheat germ.
Nutritional approaches to treatment employ CHOLINE and LECITHIN (phosphatidylcholine) supplements. The rationale for their use is based on the fact that the brains of diseased patients do not make enough acetylcholine, and supplying this building block could boost acetylcholine production. Results of clinical studies have not shown consistent improvements. Researchers have used drugs that help maintain acetylcholine levels with mixed results. A growth promoter called nerve growth factor may enhance brain function in aged experimental animals. Preliminary research suggests that GINKGO biloba, a leaf extract, is known to have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and to enhance NEUROTRANSMITTER function, alleviates the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. Scientists are currently studying whether a lowfat, high-fiber diet may reduce the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease just as it lowers the risk of other diseases associated with aging, like cardiovascular disease and cancer. Finnish researchers who studied 1,500 patients for 21 years found that subjects with high CHOLESTEROL and high blood pressure had a corresponding higher risk of developing Alzheimer’s. French researchers noted a link between high blood pressure and Alzheimer’s risk.

Aluminum and Human Health

2010-11-30T16:57:00.000-08:00

A metallic ion that is widely distributed in water and soil. Drinking water often contains aluminum beyond levels leached from soil and clay because aluminum hydroxide is often added to municipal water supplies to clarify drinking water.
Aluminum is often added to food. Aluminum compounds make PROCESSED FOOD more creamy and pourable. They are quite versatile and are found in INFANT FORMULA, pickles, relishes, BEER, CREAM OF TARTAR, grated CHEESE, canned foods, BAKING POWDER, and self-rising FLOUR. Aluminum is also found in the medicine chest: A major source of aluminum is ANTACIDS (such as Maalox), which have a high aluminum hydroxide content. Antiperspirants, over-the-counter analgesics (pain relievers, such as buffered ASPIRIN for arthritis), and other pain medications contain aluminum. The average daily intake from all sources ranges from 10 to 100 mg. Most of this is not absorbed; of the fraction of aluminum that is absorbed by the body, most is subsequently excreted.
Although aluminum is not a heavy metal, accumulated evidence suggests that this substance may be harmful. Aluminum may cause dialysis dementia, SENILITY, and brain damage in young patients undergoing hemodialysis for kidney failure. Their increased aluminum intake is due to the use of antacids containing aluminum and to the elevated aluminum content of water used for dialysis. More generally, high levels of aluminum may inhibit phosphate uptake by the intestine and may increase CALCIUM losses by excretion by the kidneys. The imbalance may cause brittle bones and may disturb bone formation. Other evidence suggests that excessive aluminum impairs the body’s immunity.
Aluminum seems to accumulate in the brain with age, and high levels of aluminum are found in the brains of victims of ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE. Whether this is a cause or an effect of the disease is not known.
Patients with kidney disease and anyone regularly consuming antacids that contain aluminum compounds should be aware of the risks. Patients should avoid taking medications containing aluminum with orange juice (CITRIC ACID); this combination can dramatically increase aluminum uptake in the body. Acidic foods like TOMATO sauce, applesauce, and SAUERKRAUT should not be placed in aluminum foil or in uncoated aluminum cookware because these foods dissolve aluminum, which can then be absorbed.

Understanding alpha linolenic acid

2010-10-31T10:44:00.000-07:00

Chemically speaking, this FATTY ACID has 18 carbons and a pair of double bonds. It cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained from the diet. A POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID, it is classified as an essential dietary nutrient. Alpha linolenic acid is the smallest of the omega-3 family of polyunsaturated fatty acids, distinguished by subtle structural differences in which the double bonds begin at the third carbon from the end. It is the building block of larger omega-3 acids, including EICOSOPENTAENOIC ACID and DOCOSOHEXAENOIC ACID (DHA), which in turn form the PG3 class of PROSTAGLANDINS, hormone-like substances that decrease inflammation, decrease blood clotting and lower blood CHOLESTEROL. PG3 prostaglandins help return the body to equilibrium after physical stress or injury.
Omega-3 fatty acids are deficient in the standard American diet, and this deficiency may be linked to an increased risk of heart attacks and inflammation associated with degenerative disease. Chronic, severe deficiencies impair vision, increase inflammation, and diminish learning curves in experimental animals. The utilization of alpha linolenic acid may be limited in some disease states. The nervous system and brain contain high levels of the omega-3 fatty acids, and there is a positive relationship between the content of these fatty acids in the diet and vision and brain function. Pre-term babies need DHA because their livers are not mature enough to synthesize it from alpha linolenic acid.
Good dietary sources of the omega-3 fatty acids are limited. Breast milk contains omega-3 fatty acids, suggesting their importance in an infant’s growth and development. Food processing destroys or removes the omega-3s, and there are none in FAST FOODS such as PIZZA, fried FISH sandwiches, fried chicken, or HAMBURGERS. The most common sources are fish and FISH OILS, FLAXSEED OIL, and pumpkin seeds; fish oil and flaxseed oil are sold as supplements. Because oils containing essential fatty acids readily oxidize and become rancid they need to be protected from oxygen and heat. They are usually packaged with ANTIOXIDANTS, such as VITAMIN E. Buying small quantities of these oils and refrigerating them in sealed containers after opening reduces the risk of rancidity. These oils should not be used for cooking.

Benefits of Aloe Vera

2010-10-31T10:43:00.000-07:00

A succulent plant with long pointed leaves that produces a JUICE with medicinal properties. There are hundreds of different aloe species. Aloe extracts are a folk remedy, long used to treat mild burns, insect bites, abrasions, minor cuts and chafing, fever blisters, poison ivy, and to relieve joint inflammation and allergic reactions. Research has yielded mixed results. Most human studies have been uncontrolled. Evidence suggests that aloe vera may help heal ulcers and gastrointestinal inflammation and fight infections by boosting the immune system. Although a 1985 U.S. FDA study group concluded that aloe vera did not heal burns, recent clinical studies indicate burn healing is speeded up by aloe, possibly by improving collagen formation and by improving blood flow to damaged areas. There is preliminary evidence that aloe may help prevent severe conditions such as CANCER. Very rarely, aloe vera may cause a rash in sensitive people, and pregnant women should not take aloe internally. Aloe vera skin gel may slow the healing of infected surgical incisions.

Nutritional Content of Almond (Prunus amygdalus)

2010-10-31T10:41:00.000-07:00

A cultivated, elongated nut with white meat and a brown skin. The almond tree resembles the PEACH, to which it is related. The almond originated in Asia and was known to the Romans as the “Greek nut.” There are two varieties: the sweet almond and the bitter almond, which has a stronger flavor. Almond extracts are used to flavor cakes and pastries, and slivered or flaked sweet almonds are used in cakes, cookies, and pastry. Dried almonds are served raw or roasted and salted. Nuts roasted with coconut or palm oil dramatically increase their caloric content and increase their SATURATED FAT content. Almonds are also used as ingredients of stuffings and couscous, and they can accompany FISH or POULTRY dishes (the garnish is known as amandine). Almonds are a good source of CALCIUM and they are also rich in oil. Most of the oil is monounsaturated and more closely resembles OLIVE OIL than typical vegetable oils like SAFFLOWER oil, which are high in polyunsaturates. One ounce (28 g) of raw, sweet almonds provides 167 calories; carbohydrate, 5.7 g; fiber, 3 g; fat, 14.8 g; protein, 5.9 g; calcium, 75 mg; iron, 1.0 mg; niacin, 0.95 mg; thiamin, 0.06 mg; riboflavin, 0.22 mg.

Immediate Allergy (immediate hypersensitivity)

2010-09-30T18:11:00.000-07:00

An inflammatory reaction responsible for the familiar hay fever, asthma, and hives due to exposure to an ALLERGEN. These symptoms seldom leave any doubt as to their cause. The key lies within mast cells, defending cells embedded in tissues, which carry a bound ANTIBODY (IgE) on their surfaces. Upon contact with an invader, mast cells release inflammatory agents such as histamine and leukotrienes that evoke swelling, itchiness, copious mucous secretion, and the spasm of muscles of the intestinal tract and of air passageways (bronchioles). Common materials often trigger fast-developing reactions: dust, pollen, animal dander, medications, disease-producing microorganisms, and pollutants. Seafood, milk, sulfites, PEANUTS, and strawberries are a few of the food-related causes of immediate hypersensitivity. It may come as a surprise that immediate allergic reactions account for a small fraction of food allergies. Most food allergies are of the slow-reacting type.
Anaphylactic shock is the condition resulting from allergic reaction and affects the whole body quickly. It produces labored breathing, fever, erratic heartbeat, violent coughing, hives and edema, even convulsions. This severe response can be life-threatening. Individuals who are susceptible to severe allergy attacks may be advised to carry injectable medications (“bee sting” kits containing adrenalin or other drugs).

Understanding Food Allergy

2010-09-30T17:35:00.000-07:00

An abnormal reaction of the IMMUNE SYSTEM to normally harmless foods. An allergic response involves two aspects of the immune system: circulating ANTIBODIES and specialized attack cells. Each branch of the immune system can react to foods as though they were foreign invaders. In contrast, other types of FOOD SENSITIVITY such as LACTOSE INTOLERANCE do not depend on antibody reactions, nor do they involve other aspects of the immune system.
Allergy patterns may change during a lifetime; old sensitivities may vanish, and new ones may appear according to the health of the immune system and to the amount of allergen exposure. Introducing solid foods before an infant’s DIGESTIVE
TRACT is fully developed carries an increased risk of the development of food allergies. Children are more likely to suffer from allergies than adults, though they often outgrow them. Individuals who have relatives with allergies are more prone to develop food allergies themselves. Food allergies are more likely to occur with inadequate nutrition, infections, and physical and emotional stress. Faulty DIGESTION and intestinal inflammation can allow food ALLERGENS to penetrate intestinal barriers and enter the bloodstream.
Depending on how food allergy is defined, estimates of the prevalence of food allergies range from 2 percent to 25 percent of the U.S. population. Opinion is also divided regarding the predominant form of food allergies. Those who consider food allergy an uncommon phenomenon focus on the readily observable, rapid systemic reactions to foods. These generate hay fever–like symptoms (immediate hypersensitivity). Other research indicates that typical food allergies are complex immune reactions resulting in delayed hypersensitivity. They frequently involve antibodies in the blood (IgG type), and symptoms develop over hours or days after consuming the problem food. This delay increases the difficulty in relating a specific food to sometimes vague symptoms.
The most common symptom of food allergy is FATIGUE. Other symptoms range from those typical of PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME to HYPOGLYCEMIA, eczema, irritability, achy joints, puffy eyes with dark circles, or postnasal drip. Food allergies may produce asthma in the respiratory tract; in the brain, insomnia, mood changes, confusion, or fatigue; in the gastrointestinal tract, INDIGESTION, irritable colon, CONSTIPATION, or DIARRHEA.
A simple, proven method of coping with food allergies is abstinence. Avoiding the offending food for several days to several weeks may allow the immune system to return to normal. If symptoms recur when the questionable food is eaten again, that food is probably the culprit. ROTATION DIETS have been devised to minimize exposure to allergenic foods. Because allergy-restricted diets can be difficult to balance nutritionally, those who have multiple food allergies may wish to consult both a physician and a nutritionist. Individuals with food allergies often need to find substitutes for common foods. A wide variety of food allergy cookbooks are now available to help plan delicious, nutritious meals.

Understanding Allergic Rhinitis

2010-09-30T17:31:00.000-07:00

This condition refers to allergyn symptoms associated with the chronic inflammation typical of hay fever: a perpetually stuffy, runny nose, sneezing, puffy bags and dark circles under the eyes, and a puffy face. Allergic rhinitis can lead to chronic earaches, especially in children, and to inflamed sinuses (sinusitis). It is more common among children, but can occur at any age. Allergic rhinitis is the result of a specific type of ANTIBODY, IgE, which binds to mast cells, defensive cells of the IMMUNE SYSTEM, to stimulate inflammation. Therefore allergic rhinitis can be measured by a skin test. Nasal symptoms occur immediately after exposure to common allergens, including pollen, animal dander, house dust, mites, insects, MOLD, and foods. Identification of the offending substance and reduced exposure are important; complete avoidance may be curative.

What are allergens?

2010-08-31T21:36:00.000-07:00

A substance or agent that causes an allergic reaction. Allergens provoke the IMMUNE SYSTEM when it senses an allergen as a foreign substance and overreacts. This “hypersensitivity” may be immediate, when symptoms appear within minutes to several hours after exposure, or it can be delayed, when symptoms appear hours after exposure or longer.
At the top of the list of food allergens are DAIRY products, PEANUTS, nuts (e.g., HAZELNUTS, CASHEWS), GRAINS (especially WHEAT and CORN), SOYBEAN products, CITRUS FRUITS, and SHELLFISH. The binders and other ingredients of vitamin supplements, as well as HERBS and SPICES, can cause reactions in suscep susceptible individuals. Prescription drugs (including penicillin), antisera, and constituents of infectious agents (including bacteria and viruses, yeast, and parasites) can be allergens. Physical agents, including radiation, heat, and pressure may also provoke inflammation, an aspect of the immune response. In provoking an immune response, allergens typically react with ANTIBODIES, protective proteins formed by specialized cells of the immune system.

What is Alkalosis

2010-08-31T21:34:00.000-07:00

Excessive alkalinity (elevated pH) of body fluids caused by either an accumulation of alkaline substances or a reduction in ACIDS. Alkalosis is thus more general than ALKALEMIA (alkaline blood). Respiratory alkalosis occurs with hyperventilation, aspirin poisoning, abnormal brain function, or inadequate oxygen supply, as may occur during exertion at high altitudes. Metabolic alkalosis occurs with severe VOMITING due to losses of hydrogen ions and chloride ions (STOMACH ACID); losses of POTASSIUM due to diuretic therapy; and ingestion of BAKING SODA (or other alkaline substances). Symptoms of both types of alkalosis include shallow breathing, a tingling sensation at fingertips and toes, muscular cramps, and convulsions. Like prolonged ACIDOSIS, alkalosis requires medical intervention.

Alkaloids in our food

2010-08-31T21:33:00.000-07:00

A large, diverse class of organic compounds prevalent in the plant kingdom that contain nitrogen and function as bases. Often alkaloids profoundly affect the body’s physiology, and purified alkaloids are even more active. Examples of potent alkaloids include morphine, cocaine, quinine, strychnine, nicotine, CAFFEINE (COFFEE), and theobromine (CHOCOLATE). Depending upon the application and the dose, alkaloids may be used in therapy or they may cause toxicity. Socrates was killed by the alkaloid coniine that occurs in hemlock. Eating quail that have eaten poison hemlock can cause food poisoning in humans. Alkaloids such as nicotine and caffeine are addictive substances. Morphine and cocaine are controlled substances due to their addictive properties.

What is alkaline tide

2010-07-31T17:21:00.000-07:00

The slight rise in blood pH following a meal, when the BLOOD temporarily becomes more ALKALINE. When the STOMACH produces hydrochloric acid (STOMACH ACID) for use in DIGESTION, it removes a fraction of negatively charged CHLORIDE ions from circulation. Chloride is then replaced by BICARBONATE in the blood, which tends to raise blood pH. As the meal is digested, chloride ions are reabsorbed by the INTESTINE and again enter the bloodstream. In turn, bicarbonate is reabsorbed and the pH returns to normal. The URINE may become more alkaline during digestion as the body compensates for the change in blood pH.

What is Alkalemia

2010-07-31T17:07:00.000-07:00

A blood condition characterized by excessive alkalinity (excessively high pH). A blood pH greater than 7.4 is considered alkaline and rep represents an accumulation of hydroxide ions and depletion of hydrogen ions, CARBON DIOXIDE, and CARBONIC ACID. The body is exquisitely buffered to keep blood pH slightly alkaline, within a very narrow range, 7.35–7.45. However, this equilibrium can be shifted by loss of STOMACH ACID through vomiting; by the consumption of alkaline medications such as those used to treat ulcers; and by rapid breathing (hyperventilation), which rapidly decreases the body’s stores of carbon dioxide. The body compensates for alkalemia and reestablishes normal blood pH by slowing the respiration rate (breathing); this increases the level of carbon dioxide in the blood, which spontaneously forms more carbonic acid. The KIDNEYS can compensate for elevated pH by excreting alkaline urine.

Understanding Alitame

2010-07-31T17:05:00.000-07:00

A non-caloric ARTIFICIAL SWEETENER that is 2,000 times sweeter than sugar that has not yet been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. This sweetener was developed to be safer than ASPARTAME. Unlike aspartame, alitame does not contain phenylalanine and consequently would likely be safe for individuals with PHENYLKETONURIA (PKU), a genetic intolerance to this amino acid.

Understanding Alimentation

2010-06-30T19:34:00.000-07:00

The physiologic processes by which food nurtures and maintains the body. These include chewing (MASTICATION), swallowing, and digesting food. Alimentation also encompasses the ABSORPTION of NUTRIENTS (VITAMINS MINERALS, AMINO ACIDS, FAT, CARBOHYDRATES) by the intestine and their use in CATABOLISM (energy production) and in ANABOLISM (building cellular constituents). The term alimentary canal refers to the digestive cavity running from the MOUTH to the anus. Artificial alimentation refers to feeding a patient artificially either by intravenous procedures or by a nasal tube. Forced alimentation is feeding a patient who is unwilling to eat.

Understanding Alginate

2010-06-30T19:31:00.000-07:00

(ammonium, calcium, potassium, and sodium salts of alginic acid) A food additive obtained from the giant kelp, a brown algae commercially harvested off the coast of California. Alginate is a major constituent of the cell wall and consists of polymers of acidic sugars Alginate is used by the food industry as a thickening and stabilizing agent because calcium alginate forms very stable gels in water. It prevents jelly in pastries from melting during baking and provides smooth textures to ICE CREAM, YOGURT and CHEESE, CANDY, whipped cream in pressurized cans, and canned frosting. Alginate also helps keep cocoa butter dispersed in chocolate milk. The red PIMENTO stuffed in green OLIVES contains the most alginate (6 percent) of any food source. Alginate is not used in acidic foods and beverage such as salad dressings and SOFT DRINKS, because it forms sediment under these conditions.
Alginate is on the GENERALLY RECOGNIZED AS SAFE (GRAS) list of the U.S. FDA. Short-term animal testing indicates the alginate is not absorbed by the body and is not toxic. Because alginate forms highly charged gels in water, it remains to be determined whether it can limit the absorption of minerals and other nutrients by the body.

Edible Algae (seaweed)

2010-06-30T19:29:00.000-07:00

Simple plants found in fresh water and oceans throughout the world. Algae are largely undifferentiated and, unlike terrestrial plants, algal leaves and stems are composed of the same tissue. Edible species are either grown or collected along coastal intertidal zones. In Japan, six types are consumed, and together they account for an estimated 10 percent of the country’s total food production.
Edible brown algae, which represent most of the edible seaweed harvested worldwide, include arame, hiziki, kelp, and kombu. Edible red algae include CARRAGEENAN (Irish moss), dulse, and nori.
These “sea vegetables” are rich sources of MAGNESIUM, IRON, IODINE, and CALCIUM, and some are as rich in vitamins such as VITAMIN C, BETA-CAROTENE, VITAMIN E, and the B COMPLEX as the best cultivated sources. In addition, various algae are used commercially as sources of gums (AGAR, carrageenan, and ALGINATE). Carrageenan has the ability to form salt gels in milk products and is used to keep fats from separating, and to thicken ICE CREAM. Alginic acid (alginate) in brown seaweed can bind toxic metals in the body and speed their removal. These algae can be added to SOUPS, VEGETABLES, SALADS, BEAN dishes, and GRAINS to add zest and boost nutritional value. Their flavor is neither fishy nor salty. There is little information on toxic metal contamination of any domestic or imported seaweed. One study found very low amounts of arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury in common imported varieties; the levels were well below limits set by the Food Chemicals Codex of the Food and Nutrition Board. Mercury levels were far below the limits set for fish.

Alfalfa and Nutrition

2010-05-31T02:04:00.000-07:00

(Medicago sativa) A LEGUME used primarily for fodder throughout the world. As a nutritional supplement, this plant is a rich source of TRACE MINERALS, BETA-CAROTENE, ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS, VITAMIN K, and the B COMPLEX vitamins. Alfalfa contains significant FIBER and is a rich source of PROTEIN (25 percent by weight). In Asia, alfalfa leaves are used in the form of greens as a VEGETABLE.
Claims that alfalfa boosts the IMMUNE SYSTEM may relate to its trace mineral content. It also has antibacterial activity, and there is some evidence that alfalfa can induce LIVER detoxifying enzymes that destroy toxins and pollutants. Alfalfa contains several classes of compounds, including SAPONINS, STEROLS, and FLAVONOIDS, which can affect the body. For example, alfalfa saponins decrease blood cholesterol levels in lab animals. Alfalfa may reduce damage due to radiation, perhaps due to the ANTIOXIDANTS it contains. Individuals who have heart disease, who are pregnant, who have a tendency to clot easily or take anticoagulants should avoid alfalfa supplements because their vitamin K content may promote blood clotting. Avoid consuming excessive amounts of alfalfa during pregnancy and when breast-feeding, because it contains substances with weak estrogenic activity. Alfalfa sprouts are a healthful alternative to LETTUCE because it contains beta-carotene, VITAMIN C, and trace minerals at levels higher than those found in iceberg lettuce. In contrast with most lettuce, alfalfa sprouts are not treated with PESTICIDES. Alfalfa sprouts (100 g) provide 54 calories; protein, 6 g; carbohydrate, 9.5 g; fiber, 3.1 g; fat, 0.4 g; calcium, 215 mg; iron, 2.3 mg; thiamin 0.13 mg; riboflavin, 0.14 mg; niacin, 0.5 mg.

What is Aldosterone?

2010-05-31T02:01:00.001-07:00

A hormone of the adrenal glands responsible for regulating SODIUM in the blood. It is classified as a corticosteroid, a group of hormones synthesized by the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone is the principal MINERALOCORTICOID, which directs the KIDNEYS to conserve SODIUM by reabsorbing sodium and water from urine. In the kidneys, aldosterone stimulates the renal tubules to release POTASSIUM and hydrogen ions in place of sodium, thus increasing urine acidity. Mineralocorticoids also increase sodium reabsorption from sweat, SALIVA, and GASTRIC JUICES. Other steroid hormones, deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, and progesterone, can also cause sodium retention, though they are much less active.
Stimuli that increase aldosterone secretion include SURGERY, anxiety, physical trauma, high potassium intake, low sodium intake, and diseases of the heart, LIVER, and kidneys. The pituitary hormone ACTH stimulates steroid hormone release from the adrenal glands. Aldosterone is also regulated by the kidneys in response to low serum sodium levels. The kidneys produce an enzyme, RENIN, which forms the hormone ANGIOTENSIN in the blood that stimulates aldosterone release.

What is Aldicarb?

2010-05-31T02:00:00.000-07:00

(Temik; Carbamyl) A very toxic insecticide widely used on POTATOES, SOYBEANS, PEANUTS, and citrus crops for control of chewing and sucking insects. Aldicarb was assumed to break down rapidly after application. However, tests show that it can persist in soil for years and contaminate crops planted in the same soil later. Several instances of aldicarb poisoning indicate the potential hazard of using this pesticide.
Symptoms of aldicarb toxicity include seizures, disorientation, blurred vision, and gastrointestinal disorders. The EPA recently limited the use of aldicarb and directed states to determine areas susceptible to contamination and then to monitor them, to assure concentrations do not exceed the limits set by the EPA. Activated charcoal filters can remove aldicarb from drinking water.

Understanding Alcoholism

2010-04-30T02:14:00.000-07:00

A condition characterized by an uncontrollable urge to drink, a tolerance to increasing quantities of ALCOHOL, blackout episodes, and withdrawal symptoms during abstinence. Alcoholics frequently deny that they have a problem.
The costs of alcoholism to society are enormous. Excessive alcohol is involved in one out of 10 deaths in America and typically shortens the life span by 10 to 12 years. Alcoholism contributes to accidental death, crime, violence, and abuse. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, half of all fatalities due to automobile accidents have occurred in crashes in which the driver or pedestrian had been drinking. Estimates of the total cost of alcoholism to society range from $65 billion to $117 billion. Alcohol abuse occurs among young people as well as the elderly, encompasses people of all social and economic backgrounds, and women as well as men. Children of alcoholics are more likely to abuse alcohol and drugs. Individuals may be born susceptible to alcoholism due to imbalanced body chemistry; however, the social environment obviously plays an important role.
Alcoholism leads to disturbances of the GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT: Excessive ethanol directly or indirectly increases chronic intestinal inflammation associated with MALABSORPTION, comprised digestion, and “leaky gut,” in which the intestine more readily absorbs toxins and potentially harmful substances from food and microorganisms that the body recognizes as foreign (antigens). This can set the stage for FOOD INTOLERANCE and systemic effects. Alcohol affects the LIVER, where altered GLUCOSE and GLYCOGEN METABOLISM, fat formation, and fat export can lead to fatty deposits (FATTY LIVER). The ability of the liver to detoxify other potentially damaging materials can also be compromised.
The alcoholic individual faces profound health consequences in terms of MALNUTRITION, heart failure, high blood pressure, damage to pancreas, liver, stomach and brain, and increased risk of CANCER of the mouth and esophagus. Even moderate alcohol intake can cause birth defects if the mother drinks during pregnancy.
Alcoholism is treatable; however, recovery depends on the person’s willingness to accept help. Individualized recovery programs work best and may incorporate family counseling, psychotherapy, support groups, rehabilitation programs, education, behavior modification, vocational guidance, and exercise. Nutritional and medical treatment is often recommended to remedy nutritional deficiencies and alcohol-related disorders and to speed detoxification. A number of clinics treat alcoholism by incorporating lifestyle changes affecting DIET and EXERCISE, while eliminating CAFFEINE and nicotine. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) can provide a very strong support system for recovery.

Understanding alcohol-drug interactions

2010-04-30T02:13:00.000-07:00

ALCOHOL interacts with many medications. Drinking alcohol can alter the way the body metabolizes drugs. As an example, the LIVER adapts to alcohol consumption by increasing its battery of drug-destroying ENZYMES. Because a heavy drinker may metabolize a sedative rapidly, its effects could wear off sooner than in a non-drinker, leaving the heavy drinker undersedated. Patients should read prescription labels carefully before drinking, and inform dentists, physicians, pharmacists, and other health care providers if they drink.
Interactions include:
Analgesics Non-prescription pain killers, such as Tylenol, that contain acetaminophen can damage the liver of those who consume several drinks a day. ASPIRIN together with alcohol increases stomach bleeding.
Antidepressants Monoamine oxidase inhibitors,
AMPHETAMINES, and tricyclic antidepressants such as imipramine cause severe reactions and increased sedation, if taken with alcohol. Taking any one of several antidepressant drugs called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), including Prozac, Paxil, and Zoloft, can increase the effects of alcohol, including drowsiness and impaired motor skills.
Antihistamines Drinking after taking drugs like benadryl can lead to excessive drowsiness. Arthritis Medications Indocin and other drugs prescribed for arthritis taken with alcohol can irritate the gastrointestinal tract and may cause dizziness.
Barbiturates Alcohol should never be combined with drugs like amytal or phenobarbital, which is the most hazardous combination. The additive effects of taking the depressants can lead to respiratory failure and coma.
Diabetic Medications Individuals taking Diabinese, Orinase, and other sulfonureas to treat diabetes will probably not be able to tolerate alcohol because these drugs can make the user ill after drinking alcoholic beverages.
Niacin Large doses of niacin taken with alcohol can reduce blood pressure excessively. Prescription Pain Killers Codeine and narcotics combined with alcohol cause increased sedation. Sedatives and Tranquilizers Combining alcohol and tranquilizers such as Valium and Thorazine can lead to oversedation and extreme drowsiness.

Bad Effects of Alcohol Consumption

2010-04-30T02:11:00.000-07:00

Possible consequences of excessive alcohol consumption including the following:
Birth Defects and Mental Retardation in Infants Drinking during pregnancy can lead to.
Addiction Alcoholism is one of the most common addictions.
Intoxication Excessive alcohol can lead to a progressive deterioration of mental functioning.
Alcohol is a depressant and slows down the nervous system, especially the brain. While moderate drinking can be relaxing, being intoxicated means the control centers are blocked, which can lead to memory lapses, decreased coordination, loss of inhibitions, confusion, mood swings, and depression. Most individuals will be adversely affected when the alcohol content of the blood rises above a threshold value. Legal intoxication in the United States is often defined as having a blood alcohol content ranging from 0.01 percent to 0.02 percent, depending upon the state. (Normally, the alcohol content of the blood is negligible.) Drunk drivers contribute significantly to traffic fatalities in the United States. Aggravated High Blood Pressure Excessive alcohol consumption can worsen hypertension. Increased Risk of Disease Alcohol injures the liver (CIRRHOSIS), the pancreas (PANCREATITIS), and the brain. It causes intestinal inflammation, interferes with nutrient uptake and may increase uptake of toxins. Heavy drinkers have increased risk of heart failure, and alcohol causes a dangerous enlargement of the heart. For this reason some researchers do not recommend that anyone past the age of 50 drink alcoholic beverages. Alcohol increases the risk of cancer of the esophagus, mouth, larynx, liver, and breast. Women who drink two to five alcoholic drinks a day increase their risk of invasive breast cancer 30 percent to 40 percent, according to the American Medical Association. Invasive cancer is the type most likely to spread to other TISSUES or organs.
Surplus Calories One gram of ethanol provides seven CALORIES, almost as much as FAT. One beer is equivalent to 150 calories. One shot (1.5 fl. oz.) of 80 proof gin, vodka, or rye whiskey contributes about 110 calories that supply no other nutritional value. Alcohol even increases the body’s need for vitamins.
Exposure to Sulfites Wine contains SULFITE, which can cause reactions in sensitive people.

Alcohol (ethanol, grain alcohol, ethyl alcohol)

2010-03-30T03:27:00.000-07:00

A common term for the simple alcohol ETHANOL, the product of FERMENTATION. As a constituent of alcoholic beverages, ethanol is the most common, and longest used, sedative. To produce alcohol, special strains of yeast are incubated with CARBOHYDRATES of FRUIT juices and GRAINS together with other nutrients.
Under ANAEROBIC conditions (in the absence of oxygen), these microorganisms ferment sugar to ethanol and CARBON DIOXIDE to obtain energy. The immediate product of the fermentation of grapes is WINE. When malted grains and hops are fermented, the product is BEER. Distillation, a process introduced in the Middle Ages, produces alcoholic beverages with a higher alcohol content. These include rum, whiskey, liqueurs, and the like. Beer and wine are perhaps the most popular beverages among moderate drinkers. A mug of beer (11 oz., 4.5 percent), a glass of table wine (4 oz.) and a shot (jigger;
1.5 fl.oz.) of liquor (80 proof) contain about the same amount of alcohol (9 to 13 grams.) Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages can cause MALNUTRITION because alcoholic beverages contain little else besides CALORIES. A glass of red wine contains 88 calories; a bottle of regular beer, 146; and a shot (1.5 fl. oz.) of whiskey (90 proof), 110 calories. VITAMIN, PROTEIN, and MINERAL content of alcohol is exceedingly low, though wine may contain a significant amount of IRON. For this reason, alcoholic beverages are classified as low-nutrient density or EMPTY CALORIES. To the extent they are consumed, they displace nutrient-dense foods. The blood alcohol level is affected by the amount of alcohol ingested. Water and juice slow the absorption of alcohol, while carbonation increases the rate of uptake into the bloodstream. Alcohol taken with food is less intoxicating. How alcohol is metabolized is another factor. A portion of the ingested alcohol is destroyed by ENZYMES in the stomach that are more active in men than in women; consequently, women generally have a lower tolerance to alcohol. The liver’s capacity to destroy alcohol in the blood is limited, and when the liver’s metabolic system is saturated, a fraction of ethanol in the blood is destroyed each hour. The remaining alcohol readily penetrates the bloodbrain barrier and interacts with the central nervous system. Alcohol can pass from maternal blood into breast milk; therefore, lactating mothers may wish to abstain from drinking.
Some studies suggest that a single alcoholic drink a day may slightly reduce the risk of heart attack and stroke in some individuals. Moderate alcohol consumption increases the level of HDL, the beneficial form of cholesterol that tends to protect against heart disease. Alcohol also inhibits platelet formation, which is required to form blood clots. Moderate alcohol use may also help prevent age-related decline in reasoning and problem solving. The apparent benefits decline after more than one or two drinks, however. The American Heart Association does not recommend drinking alcoholic beverages to prevent heart disease because of the hazards of alcohol abuse.

Albumin

2010-03-30T03:24:00.000-07:00

A class of water-soluble PROTEINS that are soluble in dilute salt solutions but are insoluble in pure water. Important members of this class are serum albumin and ovalbumin. The LIVER produces serum albumin, the most plentiful protein in serum. Serum albumin transports ions like CALCIUM, free FATTY ACIDS, and fat-soluble materials like BILIRUBIN through the blood. Serum albumin also helps buffer the blood. It is a highly charged molecule (polyelectrolyte) that cannot pass through cell membranes and thus helps maintain the electrolyte balance of body fluids. Ovalbumin is one of the most abundant proteins of egg white. The Roman author Pliny recorded the name of egg white as albumen. Ovalbumin is an excellent source of sulfur-containing amino acids, such as CYSTEINE, and this accounts in part for the excellent food value of egg protein.

The Nutrition value of Albacore (Thunnus alalunga)

2010-03-30T03:22:00.000-07:00

A type of tuna with white meat. Albacore is characterized by a large pectoral (side) fin. One of the smallest tuna, albacore usually weigh less than 40 pounds (18 kg). They are found near the surface of warm or temperate seas throughout the world, where they feed on ANCHOVIES, SARDINES, and other small fish.
Albacore have been called the “chicken of the sea” because their white meat is comparable to chicken in flavor. Albacore is the highest quality canned tuna and is an excellent PROTEIN source. The food value of 3 ounces (85g) (packed in water): calories, 135; protein, 30 g; fat, 1 g; cholesterol, 48 mg; calcium, 17 mg; iron, 0.6 mg; sodium, 468 mg; zinc, 0.94 mg; vitamin A, 32 retinol equivalents; thiamin, 10.03 mg; riboflavin, 0.1 mg; and niacin, 13.2 mg

Alar (daminozide)

2010-02-26T03:36:00.000-08:00

A chemical formerly used to improve the color, yield, and storage qualities of APPLES. It is not a PESTICIDE. Until the late 1980s, Alar was used on an estimated 5 percent to 10 percent of the American apple crop. It was also used on CHERRIES and PEANUTS. Alar is a systemic pollutant, meaning it is distributed throughout the plant and cannot be washed off. Because alar has caused CANCER in experimental animals, experts worried
that because young children drink more apple juice for their body weight than do adults, they are more susceptible to the potential risk.
In 1989 Alar was withdrawn by the manufacturer, Uniroyal Chemical Company. The following year it was formally banned by the EPA. Alar is still sold abroad, however. About 50 percent of apple concentrates for apple juice comes from foreign countries where Alar is widely used, and imports may be contaminated by Alar.

Alanine (Ala, L-alanine)

2010-02-26T03:34:00.000-08:00

One of the simplest AMINO ACIDS used to build PROTEINS. Alanine is readily formed in the body from PYRUVIC ACID, a direct product of GLUCOSE utilization; hence, it is classified as a non-dietary, essential amino acid. In addition to serving as a protein building block, alanine plays an important role in transporting the toxic waste product, AMMONIA, out of muscle. Ammonia is produced when muscle cells break down amino acids for energy. Cells couple ammonia with a simple acid called pyruvic acid to form alanine, which is then released into the bloodstream.
The LIVER next absorbs alanine and removes ammonia, which it rapidly converts to UREA, the ultimate nitrogenous waste of the body.
The liver converts pyruvic acid back to glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. Blood glucose is taken up by the muscle, where it is broken down to pyruvic acid, which is then ready to accept ammonia and thus completes the cycle.

Airline Meals and Nutrition

2010-02-26T03:32:00.000-08:00

Over the years, airlines have revised the meals they serve in order to meet consumer expectations for more healthful choices. Changes include more chicken and less beef and fewer saturated fats, like coconut and palm oil.
On noncharter flights passengers can choose from up to a dozen special dietary meals. The requests must be made at least 18 hours ahead of the scheduled flight. Religious meals include kosher, Hindu, and Muslim. For medical conditions, bland, diabetic, GLUTEN-free, low-CALORIE, low-CARBOHYDRATE, low- CHOLESTEROL, low-fat, and low-SODIUM meals may be offered. Other options include a FRUIT plate, SEAFOOD, strict VEGETARIAN, ovolactovegetarian, and infant, toddler, and child meals. First-class meals follow the same nutritional standards.
Passengers on long flights, especially those who have been diagnosed as having phlebitis, inflammation of the VEINS in the leg, or who have a history of heart disease or stroke are considered at high risk of developing deep-vein thrombosis (DVT). A person suffering from deep-vein thrombosis has one or more blood clots in the body’s deep veins, often those in the legs. Because constant air circulation in planes promotes DEHYDRATION, and this, coupled with prolonged sitting, increases the risk of DVT in even healthy people, passengers should drink plenty of fluids, including water and JUICE, and avoid ALCOHOL, COFFEE, and TEA on long flights. About 4 percent to 5 percent of high-risk patients may suffer DVT on flights of 10 hours or more. A brown-bag, carry-on meal is always an option for those with special dietary needs or with food sensitivities.

Nutrients for AIDS Patients

2010-01-29T04:23:00.000-08:00

There is no cure for AIDS; however, several nutrients, food-related materials, and ENZYME preparations boost the immune system and may offer protection against the risk of CANCER and infection in some individuals with AIDS. Trace Nutrients ZINC deficiency is common in patients with AIDS and may indicate trace mineral malnutrition or malabsorption. Zinc plays an important role in maintaining the immune system. Zinc inhibits an enzyme needed for HIV production.
SELENIUM deficiency may be part of the malnutrition seen in AIDS patients. It is a COFACTOR for enzymes that serve as ANTIOXIDANTS. Selenium helps protect against liver and colon cancer in experimental animals, and clinical studies of the effects of selenium supplementation on cancer prevention are being carried out. Other vitamins and minerals, such as VITAMIN A, FOLIC ACID, VITAMIN B12, and POTASSIUM, may be deficient in some AIDS patients.
Enzymes Megadoses of a variety of enzymes, including SUPEROXIDE DISMUTASE, are being used as antioxidants. There is no clear evidence that their use diminishes or prevents symptoms.
Antioxidants Evidence suggests that HIV infected patients have lower levels of antioxidants, ncluding VITAMIN C, CAROTENOIDS, COENZYME Q, LUTATHIONE, and selenium. Such oxidative stress can promote HIV replication and decrease immunity. Antioxidant nutrients may lower the risk of cancer in the general population, and the same may be true for HIV-infected patients. BETACAROTENE and carotenoids may lower the risk of many cancers, including those of the lung, bladder, stomach, esophagus, and prostate. Beta-carotene can increase the numbers of T-helper cells. Significantly, the standard American diet is deficient in beta-carotene. Vitamin C boosts immunity, helps protect against viral and bacterial infections, and may decrease the risk of stomach, esophageal, and cervical cancer. It increases blood antibody levels and supports the function of the THYMUS GLAND and lymphocytes. Furthermore, vitamin C supports healthy connective tissue and assists in wound healing. FLAVONOIDS are associated with vitamin C in plants and enhance vitamin C therapy. Many flavonoids function as antioxidants and several types may stimulate the immune system. GLUTATHIONE supports the immune system and functions as a major antioxidant. N-acetylcysteine, a derivative of the sulfur amino acid CYSTEINE, can enhance glutathione levels.
Egg Lipids Mixtures of LECITHIN and other fatty materials from eggs have been used with some positive results in small clinical studies. Although there is a lack of strong evidence of its effectiveness, these mixtures are still being used. They are apparently nontoxic, though long-term effects are unknown.
Herbs Several herbs, such as GOLDENSEAL (Hydrastis canadensis), have been shown to enhance several aspects of immune function. The most active component of goldenseal is berberine, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent effective in treating the severe DIARRHEA that is typically seen in AIDS patients. Herbal treatment based on Chinese medicine is also being studied. Certain formulations inhibit viruses and boost the immune system. Some research suggests garlic may enhance immunity and help combat opportunistic organisms associated with AIDS, including Candida albicans, cryptococcus, herpes virus, and mycobacteria.

Antioxidants for Seniors

2010-01-29T04:20:00.000-08:00

Several nutrients seem to protect the body throughout life against damage by free radicals, highly reactive forms of oxygen that can attack cells. Trace minerals like copper, SELENIUM, and zinc, as well as vitamins C and E plus BETACAROTENE, function as antioxidants. Together with vitamin A they also keep the immune system balanced. The immune system protects the body against bacterial and viral diseases and defends against cancer.
Other ingredients in foods, especially fruits and vegetables, act as ANTIOXIDANTS. They strengthen the body’s defenses and protect against cancer. These include FLAVONOIDS, PHYTOESTROGENS (ISOFLAVONES), and ISOTHIOCYANATES. Many more remain to be identified. From hundreds of studies, it is clear that diets that provide ample fruits, legumes, and vegetables protect against many of the degenerative diseases that commonly occur with aging. As an example, middle-aged men and women who eat plenty of fruits and vegetables are significantly less likely to experience cardiovascular disease and strokes.
More research is required to determine the optimal intake of anti-aging nutrients. Foods with antiaging nutrients include orange vegetables (CARROTS, SQUASH) and dark green leafy vegetable (CHARD, KALE, SPINACH) for vitamin A and betacarotene.
Fresh fruit like ORANGES, frozen citrus juices, and BROCCOLI provide vitamin C. VEGETABLE
OIL, WHEAT germ, and nuts supply vitamin E, while whole GRAINS, SEAFOOD, CABBAGE, ONIONS, and GARLIC provide selenium

Vitamins for Seniors

2010-01-29T04:18:00.000-08:00

Research suggests there may be increased vitamin needs in elderly people; however, no definite proof that vitamin supplements increase the life span has been offered. Many elderly Americans obtain less than 50 percent of the Recommended Dietary Allowance of VITAMIN antihypertensive drugs interfere with absorption of this vitamin. Folic acid and vitamin B12 are less well absorbed in elderly persons, and the RDAs should be higher. Inadequate diet and decreased uptake of fat-soluble vitamins probably account for the increased need for VITAMIN A and VITAMIN E with aging, and extra vitamin E may boost immunity, thus helping elderly persons resist disease. Vitamin E has also shown promise in slowing decline in mental functioning in the elderly. One study showed that people who took high amounts of vitamin E had a 70 percent reduction in the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. In another study researchers followed more than 2,800 people over the age of 65 for three years. Those participants who had the highest amount of vitamin E consumption showed the slowest decline in mental alertness. Vitamin D requirements may increase during aging because the skin gradually loses its ability to manufacture the vitamin. Patients with hip fractures may be deficient in vitamin D. Another problematic nutrient for elderly people is VITAMIN C, a versatile antioxidant. Consumption may be low with diets relying on processed, overcooked foods and lacking adequate fruits and vegetables. Vitamin C may protect against cataracts and atherosclerosis.
The RDA for RIBOFLAVIN is believed to be too low for elderly people. Geriatric outpatients can exhibit low-THIAMIN levels and evidence suggests that RDA of this critical nutrient is greater for older people than for middle-aged individuals.

Minerals for Seniors

2009-12-31T11:23:00.000-08:00

Diminished digestion and ABSORPTION can lead to deficiencies of MAGNESIUM, IRON,
ZINC, COPPER, and CALCIUM. Older persons probably need more than the current calcium RDA of 800 mg because the ability of the intestine to absorb adequate calcium declines progressively with age. The common experience is that the bodies of elderly women and men remove calcium from their bones to meet their calcium needs. Supplementation with calcium and VITAMIN D, or calcium with low-dose ESTROGEN for post-menopausal women, seems to be more effective in slowing bone losses than supplementation with calcium alone. Normally, iron stores increase throughout adult life in men and in women after menopause. However, blood loss due to chronic ASPIRIN use and bleeding ulcers can cause iron deficiency; 5 percent of elderly men are iron deficient in the United States. CHROMIUM stores in the body decline steadily with age and this may contribute to the decline in the regulation of blood sugar. Chromium assists in insulin action and helps blood sugar regulation in some diabetics. Low chromium is correlated with elevated blood cholesterol levels.

Nutrient Needs During Aging

2009-12-31T11:21:00.000-08:00

Elderly persons are prone to MALNUTRITION for several reasons. They are more likely to eat alone and so take less interest in meal preparation, and they are more often disabled and immobile. Thus, they are less likely to eat properly. More than 30 percent of homebound older individuals may have difficulty in preparing their own meals. Low-fiber, high-carbohydrate meals typify the diets of many elderly persons. They use more LAXATIVES and medications for long periods. Furthermore, many elderly persons have periodontal disease and poor teeth. Their senses of smell, taste, and sight decline, making eating less appealing, and STOMACH ACID production gradually drops, decreasing nutrient uptake even with an adequate diet.
Evidence indicates that superior nutrition may prevent unnecessary illness and disability from shortening a productive life. Therefore, experts recommend the following health decisions:

Avoiding excess calories and ALCOHOL. Surplus calories regardless of their source are converted to fat. Excessive body fat contributes to the risk of heart disease, hypertension, and some forms of cancer. Besides carrying a risk of addiction, excessive alcohol can damage the liver, pancreas, and brain, in addition to depleting the body of nutrients.
Medical testing of stomach acid production. Low stomach acid production sets the stage for inadequate digestion of nutrients.
Making informed choices regarding nutritional supplements. They can affect the quality of health of those who are nutrient deficient, though eating wisely.
Choosing a diet based on DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS as a foundation. A BALANCED DIET, one that provides adequate amounts of all nutrients and FIBER from varied, minimally processed foods without excessive calories and FAT, is of paramount importance.

Understanding Aflatoxin

2009-12-31T11:18:00.001-08:00

A mycotoxin, a family of toxic compounds derived from molds growing on foods and on grains used for animal feed. Aflatoxin is produced by ASPERGILLUS, a storage mold that often infests damp grains and nuts. Nuts such as PISTACHIOS, ALMONDS, WALNUTS, PECANS, and PEANUTS are susceptible to MOLD. Very low levels of aflatoxin often contaminate PEANUT BUTTER. Spot checks have shown that this contamination is usually below the U.S. Food and Drug Administration limit. In the 1970s and again in the 1980s, hot drought conditions caused outbreaks of mold in corn and, consequently, widespread aflatoxin contamination.
Concern has focused on aflatoxin because it is a potent liver CARCINOGEN. The amount of aflatoxin permitted by the U.S. FDA is 15 parts per billion, although levels as low as one part per billion can cause liver cancer in certain species of experimental animals. As yet there is no compelling evidence that aflatoxin consumption in the low amounts usually encountered in Western nations causes cancer. In regions of Africa where peanut consumption and consequently aflatoxin intake is very high, population studies suggest a correlation with liver cancer in humans. Recent epidemiological studies have shown that ingestion of aflatoxin B-1 increases the risk of developing liver cancer. The risk is even higher for people who are infected with hepatitis B. In addition to increasing the risk of chronic diseases such as cancer, ingestion of aflatoxin B-1 can cause acute symptoms of aflatoxicosis, including vomiting, abdominal pain, and even death.
Consumers should avoid moldy, discolored, or off-flavor nuts. Molds and fungi send out microscopic filaments beyond the immediate, visibly moldy area and cannot be easily removed. Furthermore, aflatoxin is not completely destroyed by cooking. Therefore moldy food (except cheese) should be discarded, rather than cutting out the mold.

Understanding Food Advertising

2009-11-30T05:16:00.000-08:00

Billions of dollars are spent each year on advertising food, and much of this is focused on specific markets. Food ads for breakfast cereals and junk food, for example, focus largely on the children’s market. Toys, comic books, giveaways, and polished commercials can hinder young people from making independent judgments on how to eat a balanced diet. Instead, their choices may rely on the direction of advertisers. TV advertising plays a prominent role, where cartoons featuring food commercials dominate children’s programming. Most of these emphasize PROCESSED FOODS—low in nutrients and high in CALORIES, SUGAR, SALT, and FAT. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) discovered that less than 3 percent of advertising during children’s programs focuses on healthful food, such as fruit and milk. The AAP concluded that there is a direct link between commercials promoting high-calorie food and health problems, and in 1991 recommended a ban on food commercials geared toward children.
The Better Business Bureau’s Children’s Advertising Review Unit was founded in 1972. Composed of representatives from the media, ad agencies, and others, its goal is to monitor truth in advertising in radio, TV, and the printed word for children up to the age of 12, according to self-regulating guidelines. It will review material before it is publicized upon request. The group provides a forum for information exchange and relies on a panel of academic professionals to provide expertise on the impact of images on children.

Understanding Adulterated Food

2009-11-30T05:13:00.000-08:00

A food is classified as adulterated if it contains extraneous material, dangerous amounts of poisons or filth, or if it has been processed or stored under unsanitary conditions. In terms of food for interstate commerce, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration monitors environmental contaminants, toxins from microorganisms, bacterial levels, and potentially harmful substances. Since it is impossible for food to be 100 percent pure, tolerances have been set for each type of contaminant. Very hazardous materials can be ruled so dangerous that no amount should be detected (a “zero tolerance”).

Understanding Adipose tissue (body fat, depot fat)

2009-11-30T05:07:00.000-08:00

Fat storage is A specialized function of adipose tissue, and it represents The major fuel depot of the body; it is as Essential to normal function as any other tissue. Body fat serves other important functions: It insulates The body against low environmental temperatures And serves as a shock absorber. Typically, fat Stored in adipose tissue represents 15 percent to 20 Percent of men’s weight and 20 percent to 25 percent Of women’s average weight. Women usually Have more fat than men because fat is an important Energy reserve during pregnancy and lactation. Adipose tissue synthesizes fat after a high carbohydrate Meal in response to the hormone INSULIN. During FASTING, STARVATION, or STRESS, a second Hormone EPINEPHRINE (adrenaline) signals ADIPOCYTES (fat cells) to break down stored fat into FATTY ACIDS, which are released into the bloodstream. They are rapidly absorbed and oxidized for energy By muscles. In contrast, the brain relies on blood Sugar to meet its energy needs.
The fact that an adult can consume approximately Two pounds of food a day (or 700 pounds of Food a year) with only small changes in body fat Indicates how well the body regulates weight when The calorie intake matches the total body requirements. Of course, common experience suggests that Body fat can increase. For example, fat accumulation Often accounts for the weight gain of middleaged Americans. Older people tend to EXERCISE less And the metabolic rate slows with aging. An individual’s Optimal body fat at any age depends upon Many factors, including inheritance, body build, Sex, and age. Standard HEIGHT/WEIGHT TABLES or the BODY MASS INDEX can be used to estimate an appropriate Body weight for an individual.
Excessive body fat is not healthy for many reasons.
OBESITY carries with it the increased risk of CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE, HYPERTENSION, and some Forms of CANCER. It is interesting to note that the Distribution of body fat plays a role in defining the Risk for heart disease. Abdominal fat (the “spare Tire” profile) carries a greater risk for cardiovascular Disease than fat accumulated around hips and Thighs (the “pear” profile).
The general approach to losing fat stored in adipose Tissue is exercising and eating low-fat, highadipose Fiber meals, while decreasing caloric intake. Dieting Without exercise decreases muscle mass (not desirable) As well as the fat in adipose tissue, and the Weight regained after a crash diet is mostly fat (also Not desired). Cycles of dieting and not dieting also Cause loss of muscle mass. Muscle burns more ENERGY per pound than fat, so DIET cycling may Increase the difficulty of losing weight permanently. The number of fat cells in adipose tissue—
The storage bags themselves—cannot be lost by Dieting or exercise. The only way to lose fat cells of Adipose tissue is by LIPOSUCTION, a surgical procedure.

Understanding Sugar Addiction

2009-10-29T09:40:00.000-07:00

Addiction to refined CARBOHYDRATES in general and to sucrose (table sugar) specifically is a controversial topic. Proponents believe that sugar has no effect on behavior, and that it has little effect on health other than promoting tooth decay. A government task force concluded in 1986 that typical sugar consumption does not generally pose a health hazard. Critics contend that sugar addiction is a common phenomenon. Preferring sugar and sweets seems to be programmed at infancy. A craving for sweets often develops later in life, and in this sense sugar may be psychologically addicting. Compounding the problem of defining sugar addiction is the general observation that related symptoms are rather vague, including a change in mood or feeling shaky when abstaining from sugary foods.
One hypothesis proposes that addicted persons have a drive to achieve a sense of well-being and to overcome depression. Some addicted persons seem to have an abnormal metabolism of NEUROTRANSMITTERS, chemicals that carry signals from one nerve cell to another cell. A primary example is the link between depression and low levels of the brain chemical serotonin and the correlation between high-sugar, high-fat diets, and high brain serotonin levels. Evidence suggests that eating certain sugary foods stimulates the production of brain peptides (ENDORPHINS), which trigger pleasant feelings. It has been hypothesized that the formation of endorphins may be abnormal in some individuals,
possibly triggering compulsive eating behavior like BULIMIA NERVOSA. (See also APPETITE; BLOOD SUGAR; NATURAL SWEETENERS.)

Understanding Addiction

2009-10-29T09:16:00.000-07:00

A chronic condition characterized by CRAVINGS for and uncontrollable use of a substance (often drugs or alcohol) despite negative physical, mental, or social consequences. People who suffer from drug or alcohol addiction are often malnourished and may be either overweight due to an increased consumption of foods high in refined CARBOHYDRATES or underweight due to a loss of APPETITE.
Nutrition offers a powerful adjunct to recovery and restoring the body’s biochemical balance. A nutritional program for a recovering addict might advise:

establishing new eating patterns, including eating frequent small meals to stabilize blood sugar (GLUCOSE) and prevent HYPOGLYCEMIA
avoiding foods high in sugar or refined carbohydrates eating a varied, balanced diet of VEGETABLES, whole GRAINS, LEGUMES, FRUITS, lean MEAT, POULTRY, and FISH
avoiding or eliminating foods that contain CAFFEINE
taking daily supplements of certain VITAMINS and MINERALS, such as GLUTAMINE, VITAMIN C, and NIACINAMIDE.

Acrylamide and Human Health

2009-10-29T09:11:00.002-07:00

A chemical used in making plastics, textiles, and dyes and in purifying drinking water. Short-term exposure above safe limits (maximum contaminant levels) set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) causes damage to the central nervous system. Long-term exposure can cause paralysis and possibly cancer. The chemical has been shown to cause cancer in laboratory animals. In 2002 the World Health Organization (WHO) convened an emergency meeting of food safety and health experts after a team of Swedish scientists reported that some starch-based foods, like potato CHIPS, FRENCH FRIES, and some BREAKFAST CEREALS and BREADS, contain high levels of acrylamide. The amount of the chemical found in a large order of fast-food french fries was at least 300 times above EPA safe limits for drinking water. Additional studies in Norway, Great Britain, Switzerland, and the United States reached similar results.
Acrylamide apparently forms in some starchy foods when they are baked or fried at high temperatures. Raw or boiled samples of these foods, such as potatoes, test negative for the chemical. Research on the health effects of acrylamide in food is ongoing. For the time being, most health experts have stopped short of advising consumers to avoid the risky foods or change their cooking methods.

Understanding Acidosis

2009-09-28T10:00:00.000-07:00

The acidification of the blood and other body fluids. This condition can be due to acid accumulation or to the loss of bicarbonate buffering capacity from kidney disease. The pH of blood is tightly regulated; the normal range is between pH 7.3 and 7.4. A drop in blood pH below pH 7.3, which corresponds to increased hydrogen ion concentration, could signal excessive acidity of the blood (ACIDEMIA). Homeostatic mechanisms (the body’s regulatory system of checks and balances) help prevent acidosis. Bicarbonate and serum proteins take up hydrogen ions to neutralize excessive acid rapidly, while the kidneys more slowly compensate for acid production by excreting surplus hydrogen ions. Prolonged acidosis requires medical attention because it slows down many vital functions, including nerve transmission and heart muscle contraction. Symptoms of acidosis include nausea, vomiting, DIARRHEA, headache, rapid breathing, and, eventually, convulsions.
Two forms of acidosis are recognized: metabolic and respiratory. Metabolic acidosis can occur when metabolic acids accumulate excessively. For example, when the body burns FAT at a high rate, the liver converts FATTY ACIDS to KETONE BODIES, acidic substances. This condition may occur during crash DIETING and FASTING or in a person suffering from uncontrolled DIABETES MELLITUS or chronic ALCOHOLISM.
Excessive ingestion of acids, such as in aspirin poisoning, also causes acidosis. Metabolic acidosis can also result from vomiting or diarrhea, which cause excessive loss of ELECTROLYTES like BICARBONATE and upset the acid/base balance.
Renal disease may prevent the kidneys from adequately correcting acid production.
Respiratory acidosis can occur when breathing does not adequately remove carbon dioxide. Shallow breathing, associated with respiratory disease, can cause excessive CARBON DIOXIDE in the lungs, in turn causing carbon dioxide blood levels to rise and upset the bicarbonate buffer system of the blood.

Acidophilus (Lactobacillus acidophilus) and Nutrition

2009-09-28T09:57:00.000-07:00

A species of the bacterium Lactobacillus that produces lactic acid by fermenting LACTOSE (milk sugar). This organism in the upper intestinal tract forms a symbiotic relationship with its human host. Other acid producing bacteria, including BIFIDOBACTERIA, are predominant in the lower intestine. Acidophilus is a member of the normal intestinal microflora, the so-called friendly bacteria that produce nutrients like BIOTIN and VITAMIN K. Acidophilus and other Lactobacillus species help balance the digestive system by maintaining conditions that inhibit the growth of yeasts like CANDIDA ALBICANS, as well as potentially dangerous bacterial species. Without beneficial bacteria to control them, such opportunistic microorganisms can multiply rapidly, leading to a full-blown infection.
A variety of conditions can drastically lower or eliminate the intestinal acidophilus population.
Treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics (such as tetracycline) imbalances gut microecology because these antibiotics destroy both benign and disease producing bacteria. More generally, an unhealthful lifestyle and a diet high in SUGAR and PROCESSED FOODS also adversely affect beneficial intestinal bacteria.
Acidophilus is a common food supplement that may help repopulate the gut with beneficial bacteria to prevent hard-to-control yeast infections; to break down milk sugar for those with LACTASE DEFICIENCY; to control travelers’ DIARRHEA; to relieve CONSTIPATION; to treat vaginitis (when administered as acidophilus douches); and to decrease the production of potential CARCINOGENS by certain bacteria populating the gut.

Food and acid indigestion (heartburn, esophageal reflux, gastric reflux)

2009-09-28T09:53:00.000-07:00

A condition characterized by a burning pain near the stomach. Typically, this occurs an hour or so after a heavy (fatty) meal and is often relieved by taking ANTACIDS or by drinking MILK. Acid indigestion is the most common gastrointestinal complaint in the United States; one in 10 Americans suffer daily attacks. The pain associated with acid indigestion is caused by STOMACH ACID backing up into the ESOPHAGUS, the region of the throat connecting the mouth with the stomach. Acid indigestion can be caused by air gulped when swallowing large bites of food, which can keep the passageway open. Some food allergies and food sensitivities may trigger acid indigestion by relaxing the sphincter muscles that normally seal off the stomach juices from the esophagus after eating. Although the stomach lining is protected from acid by mucus, the unprotected esophagus is irritated by repeated exposure to acid.
To prevent acid indigestion, patients should eat slowly and chew food thoroughly, avoiding foods and beverages that cause adverse reactions. Common examples include fatty foods, CHOCOLATE, COFFEE, CITRUS FRUIT, and alcoholic beverages. Also
patients should consult a physician for any chronic stomach pain because what feels like acid indigestion may actually be inadequate stomach acid (HYPOCHLORHYDRIA). Patients should seek immediate medical attention if experiencing a crushing pain in the middle of the chest that extends to the left arm, since these symptoms could indicate a heart attack.

Understanding acidifiers

2009-08-29T19:24:00.000-07:00

Common additives that increase the acidity (lower the pH) of foods and beverages. Acidifiers provide tartness and enhance flavors of processed foods. The increased acidity inhibits the growth of microorganisms; thus acidifiers act as preservatives. Certain acidifiers can also retard spoilage by acting as antioxidants, preventing chemical changes due to oxygen. This group of additives includes ADIPIC ACID (adipate), TARTARIC ACID (tartrate), benzoic acid (benzoate), and CITRIC ACID (citrate).

Understanding acid-forming foods

2009-08-29T19:18:00.000-07:00

Foods that create acidic residues after they have been broken down by the body. Protein-rich food, such as EGGS, MEAT, and poultry, produce acidic residues when oxidized for energy. The combustion of sulfur-containing amino acids tends to acidify the body (acidic residue). In contrast, fruits and vegetables make the body more alkaline or basic. They contain magnesium, calcium, and potassium salts of organic acids, which yield an alkaline residue when oxidized. Fruits are accordingly classified as alkali-forming foods, even though juices and fruit taste acidic (sour). Excretion of organic acids (potential renal acid load) can be calculated for various foods based on their content of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphorus, and sulfur. Choosing more alkaline foods may ameliorate osteoporosis, autoimmune conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, and chronic inflammation.

Acid and human health

2009-08-29T19:15:00.001-07:00

A large family of compounds that taste sour and can neutralize bases to create salts. Strong acids like hydrochloric acid (STOMACH ACID) and sulfuric acid (battery acid) give up all of their protons in water and lower the pH, the effective hydrogen ion concentration. A pH of 7.0 is neutral, that is, neither acidic nor basic, while pH values less than 7.0 are considered acidic. Exposure to strong acids tends to damage cells and tissues. The stomach is the only organ normally exposed to strong acids, but it is protected from injury by a heavy mucous layer.
In contrast to strong acids, organic acids are classified as weak acids because they donate only a portion of their hydrogen ions, lower the pH to a lesser degree, and are less dangerous to tissues.
Many compounds in foods are weak acids, including CITRIC ACID, ACETIC ACID, and TARTARIC ACID. Several weak acids are used as FOOD ADDITIVES, including benzoic acid, CARBONIC ACID, and alginic acid. As food additives and recipe ingredients, weak acids add tartness to foods. Weak acids are common intermediates, products of cellular processes that sustain life, including LACTIC ACID, KETONE BODIES, PYRUVIC ACID, acetic acid, FATTY ACIDS, SUCCINIC ACID, citric acid, even the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. GLUTAMIC ACID and ASPARTIC ACID (two common AMINO ACIDS) are classified as acidic amino acids, and are more acid than most.
In the body, weak acids characteristically have lost all their hydrogen ions and exist as a family of anions (negatively charged ions) classified as “conjugate bases” because they have been completely neutralized by the buffer systems of blood. In the blood, lactic acid exists as its anion, lactate; acetoacetic acid (a ketone body) as acetoacetate; citric acid as citrate, and so on. Often the names of acids and their anions are interchanged in nutrition literature.

What is achlorhydria?

2009-07-28T21:42:00.000-07:00

A condition resulting from the lack of STOMACH ACID. DIARRHEA, stomach discomfort, and bloating are common symptoms of achlorhydria, which has serious effects. It can lead to MALNUTRITION, even when the diet is well balanced, because achlorhydria drastically reduces the efficiency of DIGESTION. A chronic MALABSORPTION syndrome leads to deficiencies of VITAMIN B12, CALCIUM, IRON, and other nutrients and sets the stage for chronic FATIGUE, OSTEOPOROSIS, ANEMIA, and serious infections. Although causes of achlorhydria are unknown, lowered stomach acid production is associated with anemia, stomach inflammation, CELIAC DISEASE, diabetes, lupus, myasthenia gravis, rheumatoid ARTHRITIS, and some forms of cancer. Limited stomach acid production, not the absence of stomach acid, is termed HYPOCHLORHYDRIA. It is not as severe a condition as achlorhydria, although unless corrected, the ensuing malabsorption syndrome can have similar, detrimental longrange effects on health. In either situation patients may be advised to take supplemental hydrochloric acid in the form of BETAINE HYDROCHLORIDE or glutamic acid hydrochloride with meals to enhance digestion. These supplements should be used with medical supervision because of the danger of overdosing.
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What is acetoacetic acid (acetoacetate)

2009-07-28T21:39:00.000-07:00

The most prevalent of the KETONE BODIES, which are acids produced by the liver. Acetoacetic acid is a useful fuel; it is readily oxidized by the heart and brain for the production of ATP, the energy currency of cells.
Though small amounts of ketone bodies are normally produced by liver metabolism, an excessive buildup of acetoacetic acid and its derivative, BETA HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID, in the blood (ketonemia) can occur during excessive fat breakdown, when the liver cannot completely oxidize massive amounts of fatty acids released from fat (ADIPOSE TISSUE). Conditions conducive to excessive acetoacetic acid production include STARVATION (prolonged FASTING), crash DIETING, uncontrolled DIABETES MELLITUS, and chronic ALCOHOLISM.
Ketone body production serves an important role in the physiologic adaptation to starvation. With prolonged starvation, the blood levels of ketone bodies rise, and more of them cross the BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER to be taken up by nerve tissue, where they are burned for energy. Consequently, the brain requires less blood glucose (blood sugar) for energy at a time when this fuel is at a premium. The sustained build-up of acetoacetic acid in the blood (KETOSIS) can acidify the blood, leading to metabolic ACIDOSIS, and alter the acid-base balance of the body, a potentially dangerous condition.

What is acetic acid?

2009-07-28T21:37:00.000-07:00

During fermentation, certain bacteria produce acetic acid by oxidizing alcohol when exposed to air. VINEGAR contains 4 percent to 6 percent acetic acid, which gives vinegar its characteristic sour taste. As vinegar, acetic acid is a common ingredient in food preparation.
One of the simplest organic acids, acetic acid contains only two carbon atoms. It is classified as a weak acid because it is only partially ionized, unlike strong mineral acids, such as hydrochloric acid.
Acetic acid plays a pivotal role in metabolism. To be metabolized, acetic acid must be activated as acetyl CoA, in which acetic acid is bound to a carrier molecule, COENZYME A, which is in turn derived from the B vitamin PANTOTHENIC ACID. Metabolic pathways that oxidize fatty acids, carbohydrate, and amino acids for energy, all yield acetyl CoA, the common intermediate by which carbons from these fuels enter the KREB’S CYCLE to be oxidized to carbon dioxide. Alternatively, acetyl CoA can be used as a building block. It forms saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and ketone bodies. Nerve cells can use it to form the NEUROTRANSMITTER, ACETYLCHOLINE. Tissues combine acetic acid with amino sugars to form a family of sugar derivatives like Nacetylglucosamine and N-acetylgalactosamine that help define recognition sites on the surface of cells and blood group specificities, such as the A, B, O, and Lewis blood groups used in blood typing.

Acesulfame-K (acesulfame potassium; Sunett)

2009-06-28T06:39:00.000-07:00

This non-caloric, ARTIFICIAL SWEETENER tastes approximately 200 times sweeter than table sugar (SUCROSE) and lacks the bitter aftertaste of SACCHARIN. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization endorsed acesulfame-K as a satisfactory artificial sweetener in 1983. Acesulfame-K was approved in 1988 by the U.S. FDA as a sugar substitute to be used in packets or as tablets and now is approved for use in chewing gum and in powdered drink mixes. Unlike ASPARTAME, acesulfame-K can be used in cooking because it does not break down at oven temperatures. Blending Sunett with other low-calorie sweeteners creates a beverage with a more sugarlike taste than one sweetened with any single low-calorie sweetener.
The Center for Science in the Public Interest has raised questions about Sunett’s safety, saying a few tests on rats indicated a possibility of cancer, although this was not proof that the sweetener could cause cancer. The Calorie Control Council counters that the safety of acesulfame potassium has been confirmed by more than 90 studies, and it is endorsed by a committee of the World Health Organization. Theoretically, it would not be expected to be absorbed by the body. Nonetheless, some studies suggest that large doses raise blood CHOLESTEROL levels in diabetic laboratory animals and increase the number of lung and mammary tumors in other animals.

Acerola (acerola cherry, acerola berry) Acerola

2009-06-28T06:38:00.000-07:00

fruit is a product from the Caribbean and is one of the richest natural source of VITAMIN C. Acerola juice contains nearly 40 times more vitamin C than orange juice. Acerola extract is sometimes added to natural vitamin C supplements. Because of its very limited availability, the amount added to supplements is usually very small; an acerola-enriched vitamin C preparation may contain as little as a tablespoon of acerola extract per barrel of vitamin C powder.

What is Food absorption?

2009-06-28T06:27:00.000-07:00

Generally, the passage of liquids into solid materials and of gases into liquids and solids. In terms of nutrition, absorption refers to the passage of substances into body fluids and tissues.
Digestion is only the first step in the assimilation of nutrients. This chemical breakdown of food particles releases AMINO ACIDS, GLUCOSE, FATTY ACIDS, VITAMINS, and MINERALS, which must then be absorbed by the intestine in order to be used by the body. Nutrients enter cells lining the intestine (the intestinal mucosa) and then are drawn into underlying cells, where they may enter either the lymph or bloodstream for distribution to tissues throughout the body. Tissues absorb nutrients from blood via capillaries, the smallest blood vessels. Gases, too, are absorbed. Blood becomes oxygenated in the lungs by absorbing oxygen from inhaled air and releasing carbon dioxide that was absorbed from tissues.
Absorption requires a disproportionately large surface area to meet the body’s needs. Consider the total area of the small intestine, which is a highly specialized absorptive organ. Though this tube is only about 20 feet long, it has a highly convoluted surface. Furthermore, the cells lining the surface, VILLI, are covered with microscopic, hairlike projections (MICROVILLI) that dramatically increase the absorptive area to a quarter the size of a football field. The microvilli move constantly, to trap nutrients and partially digested food, which is further digested. The upper regions of the small intestine, the lower DUODENUM, and upper ILEUM, are most active in absorbing nutrients. Other regions of the gastrointestinal tract carry out limited absorption:
The stomach absorbs some ALCOHOL, glucose, ions, and water, and the colon absorbs primarily water and minerals.

Maintaining the Right Amount of Water in Your Body

2009-05-29T07:14:00.000-07:00

As much as three-quarters of the water in your body is in intracellular fluid, the liquid inside body cells. The rest is in extracellular fluid, which is all the other body liquids, such as

Interstitial fluid (the fluid between cells)
Blood plasma (the clear liquid in blood)
Lymph (a clear, slightly yellow fluid collected from body tissues that flows through your lymph nodes and eventually into your blood vessels)
Bodily secretions such as sweat, seminal fluid, and vaginal fluids
Urine A healthy body has just the right amount of fluid inside and outside each cell, a situation medical folk call fluid balance. Maintaining your fluid balance is essential to life. If too little water is inside a cell, it shrivels and dies. If there’s too much water, the cell bursts.

Investigating the Many Ways Your Body Uses Water

2009-05-29T07:06:00.000-07:00

Water is a solvent. It dissolves other substances and carries nutrients and
other material (such as blood cells) around the body, making it possible for
every organ to do its job. You need water to

Digest food, dissolving nutrients so that they can pass through the intestinal cell walls into your bloodstream, and move food along throughyour intestinal tract
Carry waste products out of your body
Provide a medium in which biochemical reactions such as metabolism (digesting food, producing energy, and building tissue) occur
Send electrical messages between cells so that your muscles can move, your eyes can see, your brain can think, and so on
Regulate body temperature — cooling your body with moisture (perspiration) that evaporates on your skin
Lubricate your moving parts

Phytochemicals Future

2009-05-29T06:42:00.001-07:00

Yes, I know that misspelling forecasting as “phorecasting” and future as “phuture” is gross. Yes, I know I already named this chapter “Phabulous Phytochemicals” and that should have been enough, but I just couldn’t resist the tempting play on words.
Please don’t let my lack of semantic restraint turn you away from the fact that phytochemical research is serious stuff that eventually should enable people to identify biochemical reactions that trigger — or prevent — specific medical conditions.
While you’re waiting for final analyses, the best nutrition advice is to dig into those veggies, fruits, and grains — and turn to Chapter 13 to find out why you need to wash them down with plenty of cold, clear water.

Dietary fiber in foods

2009-04-27T10:48:00.000-07:00

Dietary fiber is a special bonus found only in plant foods. You can’t get it from meat or fish or poultry or eggs or dairy foods. Soluble dietary fiber, such as the pectins in apples and the gums in beans, mops up cholesterol and lowers your risk of heart disease. Insoluble dietary fiber, such as the cellulose in fruit skins, bulks up stool and prevents constipation, moving food more quickly through your gut so there’s less time for food to create substances thought to trigger the growth of cancerous cells.

Sulfur compounds in your foods

2009-04-27T10:46:00.000-07:00

Slide an apple pie in the oven, and soon the kitchen fills with a yummy aroma that makes your mouth water and your digestive juices flow. But boil some cabbage and — yuck! What is that awful smell? It’s sulfur, the same chemical that identifies rotten eggs.
Cruciferous vegetables (named for the Latin word for “cross,” in reference to
their x-shaped blossoms) — such as broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower,
kale, kohlrabi, mustard seed, radishes, rutabaga, turnips, and watercress — all
contain stinky sulfur compounds, such as sulforaphane glucosinolate (SGSD),
glucobrassicin, gluconapin, gluconasturtin, neoglucobrassicin, and sinigrin, that
seem to tell your body to rev up its production of enzymes that inactivate and help eliminate carcinogens.
These smelly sulfurs may be one reason why people who eat lots of cruciferous veggies generally have a lower risk of cancer. In animal studies at Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, rats given chemicals known to cause breast tumors were less likely to develop tumors when they were given broccoli sprouts, a food that’s unusually high in sulforaphane. In 2005, a human trial conducted in China by researchers from Johns Hopkins, Qidong Liver Cancer Institute, Jiao Tong University (Shanghai), and the University of Minnesota Cancer Center showed that the sulforaphane-rich sprouts appear to help the body defang aflatoxins produced by molds that grow on grains such as rice. Aflatoxins, which damage cells and raise the risk of cancer, may be linked to the high incidence of stomach and liver cancer in China. Further studies are in the planning phases. (But of course.)

Hormonelike compounds

2009-04-27T10:42:00.000-07:00

Many plants contain compounds that behave like estrogens, the female sex hormones. Because only animal bodies can produce true hormones, these plant chemicals are called hormonelike compounds or phytoestrogens (plant estrogen). Seems fair.
The three kinds of phytoestrogens are

Isoflavones, in fruits, vegetables, and beans
Lignans, in grains
Coumestans, in sprouts and alfalfa

The most-studied phytoestrogens are the isoflavones known as daidzein and genistein (found in soy), two compounds with a chemical structure similar to estradiol, which is the estrogen produced by mammalian ovaries. Like natural or synthetic estrogens, daidzein and genistein hook onto sensitive spots in reproductive tissue (breast, ovary, uterus, prostate) called estrogen receptors. But phytoestrogens have weaker estrogenic effects than natural or synthetic estrogens. It takes about 100,000 molecules of daidzein or genistein to produce the same estrogenic effect as one molecule of estradiol. Every phytoestrogen molecule that hooks onto an estrogen receptor displaces a stronger estrogen molecule. As a result, researchers suggested that consuming isoflavone-rich foods such as soy products may provide post-menopausal women with the benefits of estrogen (stronger bones and relief from hot flashes) without the higher risk of reproductive cancers (of the breast, ovary, or uterus) associated with hormone replacement therapy (HRT). The theory was supported by the fact that the incidence of breast and uterine cancer, heart disease, osteoporosis, and menopausal discomfort is lower in countries where soy — a primary source of phytoestrogens — is a significant part of the diet.
However, recent animal and human studies offer conflicting evidence. On the one hand, these studies

Raise questions about the safety of phytoestrogen-rich foods for women with hormone-sensitive tumors
Show that phytoestrogen may stimulate tumor growth in animals whose ovaries have been removed
Demonstrate that isoflavone-rich foods have only modest effects on preserving bone and relieving “hot flashes” at menopause One the other hand, including isoflavone-rich soy foods such as tofu, miso, tempeh, soy milk, soy flour, and soy protein in a healthful diet
May reduce total cholesterol, lower LDL (“bad cholesterol”), and maintain or even increase blood levels of HDL (“good cholesterol”). In 2005, researchers at the Johns Hopkins University School of Nursing announced the results of a 216-woman study funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute in which women consuming 20 grams of soy proteins per day had significant decreases in LDLs, while women who were given the same amount of milk protein did not.

Helps people feel full longer so they can stick to a lower-calorie diet for managing weight loss. Bottom Line? According to the International Food Information Council, “Further clinical studies will continue to increase understanding of the role of soy in maintaining and improving health.” Couldn’t have said it better myself.

Understanding Antioxidants

2009-03-29T03:45:00.000-07:00

Antioxidants are named for their ability to prevent a chemical reaction called oxidation, which enables molecular fragments called free radicals to join together, forming potentially carcinogenic (cancer-causing) compounds in your body.
Antioxidants also slow the normal wear-and-tear on body cells, so some researchers noted that a diet rich in plant foods (fruits, vegetables, grains, and beans) seems likely to reduce the risk of heart disease and maybe reduce the risk of some kinds of cancer. For example, consuming lots of lycopene (the red carotenoid in tomatoes) has been linked to a lower risk of prostate cancer — as long as the tomatoes are mixed with a dab of oil, which makes the lycopene easy to absorb.
However (you knew this was coming, right?), recent studies show that although a diet rich in fruits and veggies is healthful as all get-out, stuffing yourself with the antioxidant vitamins A and C has ab-so-lute-ly no effect on the risk of heart disease.

Phytochemicals Are Everywhere

2009-03-29T03:42:00.000-07:00

Did you take French literature in high school or college? If your answer is no, you may as well skip to the third sentence in the paragraph that follows. But if your answer’s yes, then you’re probably familiar with Molière’s The Bourgeois Gentleman. The bourgeois gentleman is a lovable but pompous character who’s surprised to discover he’s been speaking prose all his life without knowing it.
Your relationship with phytochemicals is probably something like that. You’ve been eating them all your life without knowing it. The following are all phytochemicals:

Carotenoids, the pigments that make fruits and vegetables orange, red, and yellow (dark green vegetables and fruits like kiwi contain these pigments, too, but green chlorophyll masks the carotenoids’ colors)

Thiocyanates, the smelly sulfur compounds that make you turn up your nose at the aroma of boiling cabbage
Daidzein and genistein, hormonelike compounds in many fruits and vegetables
Dietary fiber

These and other phytochemicals, such as vitamins (yes, vitamins), perform beneficial housekeeping chores in your body. They

Keep your cells healthy
Help prevent the formation of carcinogens (cancer-producing substances)
Reduce cholesterol levels
Help move food through your intestinal tract

The undeniable value of phytochemicals is one reason the U.S. Department of Agriculture/Health and Human Services Dietary Guidelines for Americans urges you to have at least five servings of fruits and vegetables and several servings of grains every day.
Did you notice that no minerals appear in the list of phytochemicals? The omission is deliberate. Plants don’t manufacture minerals; they absorb them from the soil. Therefore, minerals aren’t phytochemicals.

Wow — You think that was a hot flash?

2009-03-29T03:38:00.000-07:00

Then you need extra calcium. Both men and women produce the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, although men make proportionately more testosterone and women, more estrogen. Testosterone builds bone; estrogen preserves it.
At menopause, a woman’s production of estrogen drops precipitously, and her bones rapidly become less dense. As men age and their testosterone levels drop, they’re also at risk of losing bone tissue, but the loss is less rapid and dramatic than a woman’s.
For both men and woman, severe loss of bone density can lead to osteoporosis and an increased risk of bone fractures, a condition more common among women of Caucasian and Asian ancestry. Estrogen supplements can help a woman maintain bone tissue, but taking the hormone may have serious side effects, including an increased risk of breast cancer. Twenty years ago, nutritionists thought it impossible to stop age-related loss of bone density — that your body ceased to absorb calcium when you passed your mid-20s. Today, medications such as alendronate (Fosamax) protect an aging woman’s bones without estrogen’s potentially harmful effects. Increasing your consumption of calcium plus vitamin D may also be helpful, regardless of your gender. But the most recent studies says the value of extra calcium may not be as high as once believed. What can I say? Stay tuned for more on this one.

Calcium supplements: What kind of calcium is in that pill?

2009-02-26T01:48:00.001-08:00

Calcium-rich foods give you calcium paired with natural organic acids, a combination that your body easily digests and absorbs.
The form of calcium most commonly found in supplements, however, is calcium carbonate, the kind of calcium that occurs naturally in limestone and oyster shells.
Calcium carbonate is a versatile compound. Not only does it build strong bones and teeth, but it also neutralizes stomach acid and relieves heartburn. Calcium carbonate antacids can be used as calcium supplements. They’re nutritionally sound and generally cost less than products designed solely as nutritional supplements. Some calcium supplements contain compounds that mix calcium with an organic acid. Calcium lactate is calcium plus lactic acid, the combination that occurs naturally in milk. Calcium citrate is calcium plus citric acid, an acid found in fruits. These compounds are easier to digest, but they’re sometimes more expensive than calcium carbonate products. Calcium carbonate is nearly half calcium, a very high percentage. But unless your stomach is very acidic, it’s hard for your digestive system to break the compound open and get at the elemental calcium (the kind of calcium your body can use). You can increase your absorption of calcium from calcium carbonate by taking the tablets with meals.
Because different calcium compounds yield different amounts of elemental calcium, the label lists both the calcium compound and the amount of elemental calcium provided, like this:
Calcium carbonate, 500 milligrams, providing 200 milligrams elemental calcium. Whenever you see the word calcium alone, it stands for elemental calcium.
The human body absorbs calcium most efficiently in amounts of 500 milligrams or less. You get more calcium from one 500-milligram calcium tablet twice a day than one 1,000-milligram tablet. If the 1,000-milligram tablets are a better buy, break them in half.
Warning: Not all antacids double as dietary supplements. Antacids containing magnesium or aluminum compounds are safe for neutralizing stomach acid, but they won’t work as supplements.
In fact, just the opposite is true. Taking magnesium antacids reduces your absorption of calcium, and taking aluminum antacids reduces your absorption of phosphorus. Because manufacturers sometimes change the ingredients in their products without notice, you always need to read the product label before assuming that an antacid can double as a calcium supplement

I’m looking for an iron supplement. What’s this “ferrous” stuff?

2009-02-26T01:31:00.000-08:00

The iron in iron supplements comes in several different forms, each one composed of elemental iron (the kind of iron your body actually uses) coupled with an organic acid that makes the iron easy to absorb.
The iron compounds commonly found in iron supplements are:

Ferrous citrate (iron plus citric acid)
Ferrous fumarate (iron plus fumaric acid)
Ferrous gluconate (iron plus a sugar derivative)
Ferrous lactate (iron plus lactic acid, an acid formed in the fermentation of milk)
Ferrous succinate (iron plus succinic acid)
Ferrous sulfate (iron plus a sulfuric acid derivative)

In your stomach, these compounds dissolve at different rates, yielding different amounts of elemental iron. So supplement labels list the compound and the amount of elemental iron it provides, like this:

Ferrous gluconate 300 milligrams
Elemental iron 34 milligrams

This tells you that the supplement has 300 milligrams of the iron compound ferrous gluconate, which gives you 34 milligrams of usable elemental iron. If the label just says “iron,” that’s shorthand for elemental iron. The elemental iron number is what you look for in judging the iron content of a vitamin/mineral supplement.

People who need extra minerals

2009-02-26T01:29:00.000-08:00

If your diet provides enough minerals to meet the RDAs, you’re in pretty good shape most of the time. But a restrictive diet, the circumstances of your reproductive life, and just plain getting older can increase your need for minerals. Here are some scenarios.

You’re a strict vegetarian
Vegetarians who pass up fish, meat, and poultry must get their iron either from fortified grain products such as breakfast cereals or commercial breads or naturally from foods such as seeds, nuts, blackstrap molasses, raisins, prune juice, potato skins, green leafy vegetables, tofu, miso, or brewer’s yeast. Because iron in plant foods is bound into compounds that are difficult for the human body to absorb, iron supplements are pretty much standard fare. Vegans — vegetarians who avoid all foods from animals, including dairy products — have a similar problem getting the calcium they need. Calcium is in vegetables, but it, like iron, is bound into hard-to-absorb compounds. So vegans need calcium-rich substitutes. Good food choices are soybean milk fortified with calcium, orange juice with added calcium, and tofu processed with calcium sulfate.

You live inland, away from the ocean
Now here’s a story of 20th century nutritional success. Seafood and plants grown near the ocean are exposed to iodine-rich seawater. Freshwater fish, plants grown far from the sea, and the animals that feed on these fish and plants are not exposed to iodine. So people who live inland and get all their food from local gardens and farms cannot get the iodine they need from food. American savvy and technology rode to the rescue in 1924 with the introduction of iodized salt. Then came refrigerated railroad cars and trucks to carry food from both coasts to every inland city and state. Together, modern salt and efficient shipment virtually eliminated goiter, the iodine deficiency disease, in this country. Nonetheless, millions of people worldwide still suffer from chronic iodine deficiency.

You’re a man
Just as women lose iron during menstrual bleeding, men lose zinc at ejaculation. Men who are extremely active sexually may need extra zinc. The trouble is, no one has ever written down standards for what constitutes “extremely active.” Check this one out with your doctor.
Men who take a daily supplement of 200 micrograms selenium seem to cut their risk of prostate cancer by two-thirds. The selenium supplement also produces an overall drop in cancer mortality, plus a significantly lower risk of prostate cancer, colon cancer, and lung cancer in both men and women.

You’re a woman
The average woman loses about 2 to 3 teaspoons of blood during each menstrual period, a loss of 1.4 milligrams of iron. Women whose periods are very heavy lose more blood and more iron. Because getting the iron you need from a diet providing fewer than 2,000 calories a day may be virtually impossible, you may develop a mild iron deficiency. To remedy this, some doctors prescribe a daily iron supplement.
Women who use an intrauterine device (IUD) may also be given a prescription for iron supplements because IUDs irritate the lining of the uterus and cause a small but significant loss of blood and iron.

You’re pregnant
The news about pregnancy is that women may not need extra calcium. This finding, released late in 1998, is so surprising that it probably pays to stay tuned for more — and definitely check with your own doctor. Meanwhile, pregnant women still need supplements to build not only fetal tissues but also new tissues and blood vessels in their own bodies. Animal studies suggest (but don’t prove) that you may also need extra copper to protect nerve cells in the fetal brain. Nutritional supplements for pregnant women are specifically formulated to provide the extra nutrients they need.

You’re breast-feeding
Nursing mothers need extra calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, zinc, and selenium to protect their own bodies while producing nutritious breast milk. The same supplements that provide extra nutrients for pregnant women will meet a nursing mother’s needs.

Wow — You think that was a hot flash?
Then you need extra calcium. Both men and women produce the sex hormones testosterone and estrogen, although men make proportionately more testosterone and women, more estrogen. Testosterone builds bone; estrogen preserves it.
At menopause, a woman’s production of estrogen drops precipitously, and her bones rapidly become less dense. As men age and their testosterone levels drop, they’re also at risk of losing bone tissue, but the loss is less rapid and dramatic than a woman’s.

For both men and woman, severe loss of bone density can lead to osteoporosis and an increased risk of bone fractures, a condition more common among women of Caucasian and Asian ancestry. Estrogen supplements can help a woman maintain bone tissue, but taking the hormone may have serious side effects, including an increased risk of breast cancer. Twenty years ago, nutritionists thought it impossible to stop age-related loss of bone density — that your body ceased to absorb calcium when you passed your mid-20s. Today, medications such as alendronate (Fosamax) protect an aging woman’s bones without estrogen’s potentially harmful effects. Increasing your consumption of calcium plus vitamin D may also be helpful, regardless of your gender. But the most recent studies — by which I mean the study released in February 2006 as I am typing these words — says the value of extra calcium may not be as high as once believed. What can I say? Stay tuned for more on this one.

Knowing how much mineral is too much

2009-01-28T07:11:00.000-08:00

Like some vitamins, some minerals are potentially toxic in large doses:

Calcium: Though clearly beneficial in amounts higher than the current RDAs, calcium is not problem-free:

• Constipation, bloating, nausea, and intestinal gas are common side effects among healthy people taking supplements equal to 1,500 to 4,000 milligrams of calcium a day.
• Doses higher than 4,000 milligrams a day may be linked to kidney damage.
• Megadoses of calcium can bind with iron and zinc, making it harder for your body to absorb these two essential trace elements.

Phosphorus: Too much phosphorus can lower your body stores of calcium.
Magnesium: Megadoses of magnesium appear safe for healthy people, but if you have kidney disease, the magnesium overload can cause weak muscles, breathing difficulty, irregular heartbeat and/or cardiac arrest (your heart stops beating).
Iron: Overdosing on iron supplements can be deadly, especially for young children. The lethal dose for a young child may be as low as 3 grams (3,000 milligrams) elemental iron at one time. This is the amount in 60 tablets with 50 milligrams elemental iron each. For adults, the lethal dose is estimated to be 200 to 250 milligrams elemental iron per kilogram (2.2 pounds) of body weight. That’s about 13,600 milligrams for a 150-pound person — the amount you’d get in 292 tablets with 50 milligrams elemental iron each. New FDA rules require individual blister packaging for supplements containing more than 30 milligrams iron to foil tiny fingers and prevent accidental overdoses.
Zinc: Moderately high doses of zinc (up to 25 milligrams a day) may slow your body’s absorption of copper. Doses 27 to 37 times the RDA (11 mg/males; 8 mg/females) may interfere with your immune function and make you more susceptible to infection, the very thing that normal doses of zinc protect against. Gram doses (2,000 milligrams/2 grams) of zinc cause symptoms of zinc poisoning: vomiting, gastric upset, and irritation of the stomach lining.
Iodine: Overdoses of iodine cause exactly the same problems as iodine deficiency: goiter. How can that be? When you consume very large amounts of iodine, the mineral stimulates your thyroid gland, which swells in a furious attempt to step up its production of thyroid hormones. This reaction may occur among people who eat lots of dried seaweed for long periods of time.
Selenium: In China, nutrition researchers have linked doses as high as 5 milligrams of selenium a day (90 times the RDA) to thickened but fragile nails, hair loss, and perspiration with a garlicky odor. In the United States, a small group of people who had accidentally gotten a supplement that mistakenly contained 27.3 milligrams selenium (436 times the RDA) fell victim to selenium intoxication — fatigue, abdominal pain, nausea and diarrhea, and nerve damage. The longer they used the supplements, the worse their symptoms were.
Fluoride: Despite decades of argument, no scientific proof exists that the fluorides in drinking water increase the risk of cancer in human beings. But there’s no question that large doses of fluoride — which you’re unlikely to consume unless you drink well or groundwater in the western United States — causes fluorosis (brown patches on your teeth), brittle bones, fatigue, and muscle weakness. Over long periods of time, high doses of fluoride may also cause outcroppings (little bumps) of bone on the spine. Fluoride levels higher than 6 milligrams a day are considered hazardous.
Molybdenum: Doses of molybdenum two to seven times the Adequate Intake (AI) (45 micrograms) may increase the amount of copper you excrete in urine.

Avoiding mineral deficiency

2009-01-28T07:08:00.000-08:00

What happens if you don’t get enough minerals and trace elements? Some minerals, such as phosphorus and magnesium, are so widely available in food that deficiencies are rare to nonexistent. No nutrition scientist has yet been able to identify a naturally occurring deficiency of sulfur, manganese, chromium, or molybdenum in human beings who follow a sensible diet. Most drinking water contains adequate fluoride, and Americans get so much copper (can it be from chocolate bars?) that deficiency is practically unheard of in the United States.
But other minerals are more problematic:

Calcium: Without enough calcium, a child’s bones and teeth don’t grow strong and straight, and an adult’s bones lose minerals and weaken. Calcium is a team player. To protect against deficiency, you also need adequate amounts of vitamin D, the nutrient that allows you to absorb the calcium you get from food or supplements. Milk fortified with vitamin D has done much to eliminate rickets.
Iron: Iron deficiency anemia is not just an old advertising slogan. Lacking sufficient iron, your body can’t make the hemoglobin it requires to carry energy-sustaining oxygen to every tissue. As a result, you’re often tired and feel weak. Mild iron deficiency may also inhibit intellectual performance. In one Johns Hopkins study, high school girls scored higher verbal, memory, and learning test scores when they took supplements providing Recommended Dietary Amounts of iron. Check with your doctor before downing iron supplements or cereals fortified with 100 percent of your daily iron requirement, the Environmental Nutrition newsletter warns. Hemochromatosis, a common but often-undiagnosed genetic defect affecting one in every 250 Americans, can lead to iron overload, an increased absorption of the mineral linked to arthritis, heart disease, and diabetes, as well as an increased risk of infectious diseases and cancer (viruses and cancer cells thrive in iron-rich blood).
Zinc: An adequate supply of zinc is vital for making testosterone and healthy sperm. Men who don’t get enough zinc may be temporarily infertile. Zinc deprivation can make you lose your appetite and your ability to taste food. It may also weaken your immune system, increasing your risk of infections. Wounds heal more slowly when you don’t get enough zinc.That includes the tissue damage caused by working out. In plain language: If you don’t get the zinc you need, your charley horse may linger longer. And, yes, zinc may fight the symptoms of the common cold. To date, several studies have confirmed that sucking on lozenges containing one form of zinc (zinc gluconate) shortens a cold — by a day or two. Others show no differences. Your choice. These results are for adults, not children, and the zinc tablets are meant just for the several days of your cold.
Iodine: A moderate iodine deficiency leads to goiter (a swollen thyroid gland) and reduced production of thyroid hormones. A more severe deficiency early in life may cause a form of mental and physical retardation called cretinism.
Selenium: Not enough selenium in your diet? Watch out for muscle pain or weakness. To protect against selenium problems, make sure that you get plenty of vitamin E. Some animal studies show that a selenium deficiency responds to vitamin E supplements. And vice versa.

Molybdenum

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Molybdenum (pronounced mo-lib-de-num) is part of several enzymes that metabolize proteins. You get molybdenum from beans and grains. Cows eat grains, so milk and cheese have some molybdenum. Molybdenum also leeches into drinking water from surrounding soil. The molybdenum content of plants and drinking water depends entirely on how much molybdenum is in the soil.

Benefits of chromium

2009-01-13T03:16:00.000-08:00

Very small amounts of trivalent chromium, a digestible form of the very same metallic element that decorates your car and household appliances, are essential for several enzymes that you need to metabolize fat. Chromium is also a necessary partner for glucose tolerance factor (GTF), a group of chemicals that enables insulin (an enzyme from the pancreas) to regulate your use of glucose, the end product of metabolism and the basic fuel for every body cell. In a recent joint study by USDA and the Beijing Medical University, adults with noninsulin-dependent diabetes who took chromium supplements had lower blood levels of sugar, protein, and cholesterol, which are all good signs for people with diabetes. In a related study, chromium reduced blood pressure in laboratory rats bred to develop hypertension (high blood pressure), a common complication in diabetes. Right now, little information exists about the precise amounts of chromium in specific foods. Nonetheless, yeast, calves’ liver, American cheese, wheat germ, and broccoli are regarded as valuable sources of this trace element.

Benefits of Fluoride

2009-01-13T02:52:00.000-08:00

Fluoride is the form of fluorine (an element) in drinking water. Your body stores fluoride in bones and teeth. Although researchers still have some questions about whether fluoride is an essential nutrient, it’s clear that it hardens dental enamel, reducing your risk of getting cavities. In addition, some nutrition researchers suspect (but cannot prove) that some forms of fluoride strengthen bones.
Small amounts of fluoride are in all soil, water, plants, and animal tissues. You also get a steady supply of fluoride from fluoridated drinking water.

Benefits of Manganese

2009-01-13T02:51:00.000-08:00

Most of the manganese in your body is in glands (pituitary, mammary, pancreas), organs (liver, kidneys, intestines), and bones. Manganese is an essential constituent of the enzymes that metabolize carbohydrates and synthesize fats (including cholesterol). Manganese is important for a healthy reproductive system. During pregnancy, manganese speeds the proper growth of fetal tissue, particularly bones and cartilage.
You get manganese from whole grains, cereal products, fruits, and vegetables. Tea is also a good source of manganese.

Benefits of Copper

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Copper is an antioxidant found in enzymes that deactivate free radicals (pieces of molecules that can link up to form compounds that damage body tissues) and make it possible for your body to use iron. Copper also may play a role in slowing the aging process by decreasing the incidence of protein glycation, a reaction in which sugar molecules (gly = sugar) hook up with protein molecules in your bloodstream, twist the protein molecules out of shape, and make them unusable. Protein glycation may result in bone loss, high cholesterol, cardiac abnormalities, and a slew of other unpleasantries. In people with diabetes, excess protein glycation may also be one factor involved in complications such as loss of vision.
In addition, copper

Promotes the growth of strong bones
Protects the health of nerve tissue
Prevents your hair from turning gray prematurely

But, no no, a thousand times, no: Large amounts of copper absolutely, and I repeat, absolutely will not turn gray hair back to its original color. Besides, megadoses of copper are potentially toxic. You can get the copper you need from organ meats (such as liver and heart), seafood, nuts, and dried beans, including cacao beans (the beans used to make chocolate).

Benefits of Selenium

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Selenium was identified as an essential human nutrient in 1979 when Chinese nutrition researchers discovered that people with low body stores of selenium were at increased risk of Keshan disease, a disorder of the heart muscle with symptoms that include rapid heartbeat, enlarged heart, and (in severe cases) heart failure, a consequence most common among young children and women of childbearing age.
How does selenium protect your heart? One possibility is that it works as an antioxidant in tandem with vitamin E. A second possibility, raised by U.S. Department of Agriculture studies with laboratory rats, is that it prevents viruses from attacking heart muscle.
Here’s some exciting news: The results of a four-year study involving 1,312 patients previously treated for skin cancer strongly suggests that daily doses of selenium in amounts 3.8 times the current recommended daily allowance (RDA) (55 micrograms) may reduce the incidence of cancers of the lung, prostate, colon, and rectum. The University of Arizona study was designed to see whether taking selenium lowered the risk of skin cancer. It didn’t. But among the patients who got selenium rather than a placebo, 45 percent fewer lung cancers, 58 percent fewer colon and rectal cancers, 63 percent fewer prostate cancers, and a 50 percent lower death rate from cancer overall were recorded. Now a follow-up study will determine whether these results hold up. Although fruits and vegetables grown in selenium-rich soils are themselves rich in this mineral, the best sources of selenium are seafood, meat and organ meats (liver, kidney), eggs, and dairy products.

Iodine benefits

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Iodine is a component of the thyroid hormones thyroxine and triiodothyronine, which help regulate cell activities. These hormones are also essential for protein synthesis, tissue growth (including the formation of healthy nerves and bones), and reproduction.
The best natural sources of iodine are seafood and plants grown near the ocean, but modern Americans are most likely to get the iodine they need from iodized salt (plain table salt with iodine added). And here’s an odd nutritional note: You may get substantial amounts of iodine from milk. Are the cows consuming iodized salt? No. The milk is processed and stored in machines and vessels kept clean and sanitary with iodates and iodophors, iodine-based disinfectants. Tiny trace amounts get into the products sent to the stores. Iodates are also used as dough conditioners (additives that make dough more pliable), so you’re also likely to find some iodine in most bread sold in supermarkets.

Zinc benefits

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Zinc protects nerve and brain tissue, bolsters the immune system, and is essential for healthy growth. Zinc is part of the enzymes (and hormones such as insulin) that metabolize food, and you can fairly call it the macho male mineral.
The largest quantities of zinc in the male human body are in the testes, where it’s used in making a continuous supply of testosterone, the hormone a man needs to produce plentiful amounts of healthy, viable sperm. Without enough zinc, male fertility falters. So, yes, the old wives’ tale is true: Oysters — a rich source of zinc — are useful for men. By the way, women also need zinc . . . just not as much as men do.
Other good sources of zinc are meat, liver, and eggs. Plenty of zinc is in nuts, beans, miso, pumpkin and sunflower seeds, whole-grain products, and wheat germ. But the zinc in plants, like the iron in plants, occurs in compounds that your body absorbs less efficiently than the zinc in foods from animals.

Iron benefits

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Iron is an essential constituent of hemoglobin and myoglobin, two proteins that store and transport oxygen. You find hemoglobin in red blood cells (it’s what makes them red). Myoglobin (myo = muscle) is in muscle tissue. Iron also is part of various enzymes.
Your best food sources of iron are organ meats (liver, heart, kidneys), red meat, egg yolks, wheat germ, and oysters. These foods contain heme (heme = blood) iron, a form of iron that your body can easily absorb. Whole grains, wheat germ, raisins, nuts, seed, prunes and prune juice, and potato skins contain nonheme iron. Because plants contain substances called phytates, which bind this iron into compounds, your body has a hard time getting at the iron. Eating plant foods with meat or with foods that are rich in vitamin C (like tomatoes) increases your ability to split away the phytates and get iron out of plant foods.

Magnesium benefits

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Your body uses magnesium to make body tissues, especially bone. The adult human body has about an ounce of magnesium, and three-quarters of it is in the bones. Magnesium also is part of more than 300 different enzymes that trigger chemical reactions throughout your body. You use magnesium to

Move nutrients in and out of cells
Send messages between cells
Transmit the genetic code (genes and chromosomes) when cells divide and reproduce

An adequate supply of magnesium also is heart-healthy because it enables you to convert food to energy using less oxygen. Bananas are a good source of magnesium and so are many other plant foods, including dark green fruits and vegetables (magnesium is part of chlorophyll, the green pigment in plants), whole seeds, nuts, beans, and grains.

Phosphorus Benefits

2008-12-29T18:52:00.000-08:00

Like calcium, phosphorus is essential for strong bones and teeth. For tiptop performance, you need about half as much phosphorus as calcium. Phosphorus also enables a cell to transmit the genetic code (genes and chromosomes that carry information about your special characteristics) to the new cells created when a cell divides and reproduces. In addition, phosphorus

Helps maintain the pH balance of blood (that is, keeps it from being too acidic or too alkaline)
Is vital for metabolizing carbohydrates, synthesizing proteins, and ferrying fats and fatty acids among tissues and organs
Is part of myelin, the fatty sheath that surrounds and protects each nerve cell Phosphorus is in almost everything you eat, but the best sources are highprotein foods such as meat, fish, poultry, eggs, and milk. These foods provide more than half the phosphorus in a nonvegetarian diet; grains, nuts, seeds, and dry beans also provide respectable amounts.

Calcium: The bone team player

2008-12-14T22:17:00.001-08:00

The toe bone’s connected to the foot bone. The foot bone’s connected to the anklebone. The anklebone’s connected to the knee bone. And what holds them together all the way up to the head bone is connected to your diet. Like all body tissues, bones are constantly being replenished. Old bone cells break down, and new ones are born. Specialized cells called osteoclasts start the process by boring tiny holes into solid bone so that other specialized cells, called osteoblasts, can refill the open spaces with fresh bone. At that point, crystals of calcium, the best-known dietary bone builder, glom onto the network of new bone cells to harden and strengthen the bone.
Calcium begins its work on your bones while you’re still in your mother’s womb. But it’s not the only mineral at play. You should also think zinc. Based on a survey of 242 pregnant women in Peru, where zinc deficiency is common, Johns Hopkins researchers found the babies born to women who got prenatal supplements with iron, folic acid, and zinc had longer, stronger legs bones than did babies born to women who got the same supplement minus the zinc. After you’re born, calcium continues to build your bones, but only with the help of vitamin D, which produces a calcium-binding protein that enables you to absorb the calcium in the milk Mummy feeds you. To make sure you get your D, virtually all milk sold in the United States is fortified with the vitamin. And because you may outgrow your taste for milk but never outgrow your need for calcium, calcium supplements for adults frequently include vitamin D. But vitamin D isn’t milk’s only contribution. Remember the iron in the Peruvian (and American) prenatal supplements? It isn’t there by accident. Iron increases the production of collagen, the most important protein in bone. Milk contains lactoferrin (lacto = milk; ferri = iron), an iron-binding compound that stimulates the production of the cells that promote bone growth. When researchers at the University of Auckland in New Zealand added lactoferrin from cow’s milk to a dish of osteoblasts, the bone cells grew more quickly. When they injected lactoferrin into the skulls of five lab mice, the bone at the site of the injection also grew faster, leading the team to suggest in the journal Endocrinology that lactoferrin may play a role in treating osteoporosis. No surprise to the Department of Nutrition Sciences at the University of Arizona, where a study done with scientists from the University of Arkansas and Columbia University shows that women in their 40s, 50s, and 60s who get about 18 milligrams of iron a day have stronger, denser bones than women who get less iron. What makes this intriguing is that 18 milligrams a day is more than double the current RDA (8 milligrams) for older women.
But the iron/calcium dance is a balancing act. In your body, iron and calcium appear to compete to see which one gets absorbed. So the extra iron works only for women who get about 800 to 1,200 milligrams calcium a day — women who get less and women who get more don’t seem to benefit from extra iron.
Finally, please note that the word bones begins with b — as in vitamin B12. The female sex hormone estrogen preserves bone; the male sex hormone testosterone builds new bone. As people age and their supply of sex hormones diminishes, they lose bone faster than they can levels of vitamin B12. A report in the Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism says that researchers at the University of California, San Francisco, found that women with lower levels of this vitamin also have less dense hip bones. So to protect your bones, you need calcium, zinc, iron, and vitamins D and B12, all found most abundantly in milk, cheese, eggs, and red meat. Which sounds like a cardiologist’s nutritional high-fat, high-cholesterol nightmare — unless you edit the menu to read: skim milk, low-fat cheese, egg whites, and lean beef. Way to go.

Calcium Benefits

2008-12-14T22:13:00.000-08:00

When you step on the scale in the morning, you can assume that about three pounds of your body weight is calcium, most of it packed into your bones and teeth.
Calcium is also present in extracellular fluid (the liquid around body cells), where it performs the following duties:

Regulating fluid balance by controlling the flow of water in and out of cells
Enabling cells to send messages back and forth from one to another
Keeping muscles moving smoothly and preventing cramping

An adequate amount of calcium is important for controlling high blood pressure — and not only for the person who takes the calcium directly. At least one study shows that when a pregnant woman gets a sufficient amount of calcium, her baby’s blood pressure stays lower than average for at least the first seven years of life, meaning a lower risk of developing high blood pressure later on. Your best food sources of calcium are milk and dairy products, plus fish such as canned sardines and salmon. Calcium also is found in dark green leafy vegetables, but the calcium in plant foods is bound into compounds that are less easily absorbed by your body.

An elementary guide to minerals

2008-12-14T22:12:00.000-08:00

The early Greeks thought that all material on Earth was constructed of a combination of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Wrong. Centuries later, alchemists looking for the formula for precious metals, such as gold, decided that the essential elements were sulfur, salt, and mercury. Wrong again.
In 1669, a group of German chemists isolated phosphorus, the first mineral element to be accurately identified. After that, things moved a bit more swiftly. By the end of the 19th century, scientists knew the names and chemical properties of 82 elements. Today, 112 elements have been identified.
The classic guide to chemical elements is the periodic table, a chart devised in 1869 by Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907), for whom mendelevium was named. The table was revised by British physicist Henry Moseley (1887–1915), who came up with the concept of atomic numbers, numbers based on the number of protons (positively charged particles) in an elemental atom.
The periodic table is a clean, crisp way of characterizing the elements, and if you are now or ever were a chemistry, physics, or premed student, you can testify firsthand to the joy (maybe that’s not the best word?) of memorizing the information it provides. Personally, I’d rather be forced to watch reruns of The Dating Game.